sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  80        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  83        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  85        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  86        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  89        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  93        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  94        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  95        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  97        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  98        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  99        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 100        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 104        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 105            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 106        ),
 107        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 127        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 129        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 130        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 131        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 133        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 134        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 135        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 136        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 137        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 139        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 141        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 142        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 143        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 144        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 145        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 146        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 148        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 150    }
 151
 152    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 153    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 154    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 155
 156    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 157    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 158    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 159
 160    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 161    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 162
 163    # Always do union distinct or union all
 164    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 165
 166    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 167    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 168
 169    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 170    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 171
 172    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 173    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 174
 175    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 176    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 177
 178    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 179    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 180
 181    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 182    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 183
 184    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 185    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 186
 187    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 188    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 189
 190    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 191    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 192
 193    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 194    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 195
 196    # Whether join hints should be generated
 197    JOIN_HINTS = True
 198
 199    # Whether table hints should be generated
 200    TABLE_HINTS = True
 201
 202    # Whether query hints should be generated
 203    QUERY_HINTS = True
 204
 205    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 206    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 207
 208    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 209    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 210
 211    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 212    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 213
 214    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 215    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 216
 217    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 218    RETURNING_END = True
 219
 220    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 221    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 222
 223    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 224    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 225
 226    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 227    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 228
 229    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 230    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 231
 232    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 233    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 234
 235    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 236    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 237    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 238    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 239
 240    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 241    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 242
 243    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 244    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 245
 246    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 247    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 248
 249    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 250    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 251
 252    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 253    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 254
 255    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 256    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 257
 258    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 259    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 260
 261    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 262    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 263
 264    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 265    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 266
 267    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 268    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 269
 270    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 272
 273    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 274    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 275
 276    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 277    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 278
 279    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 280    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 281
 282    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 283    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 284
 285    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 286    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 287
 288    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 289    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 290
 291    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 292    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 293
 294    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 295    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 296
 297    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 298    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 299
 300    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 301    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 302
 303    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 304    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 305
 306    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 307    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 308
 309    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 310    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 311
 312    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 313    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 314
 315    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 316    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 317    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 318
 319    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 320    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 321
 322    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 323    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 324
 325    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 326    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 327
 328    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 329    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 330
 331    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 332    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 333
 334    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 335    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 336
 337    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 338    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 339    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 340    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 341
 342    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 343    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 344
 345    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 346    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 347
 348    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 349    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 350
 351    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 352    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 353
 354    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 355        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 356        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 357        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 358        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 359        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 360        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 361        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 362        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 363        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 364        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 365    }
 366
 367    STAR_MAPPING = {
 368        "except": "EXCEPT",
 369        "replace": "REPLACE",
 370    }
 371
 372    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 373        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 374        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 375        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 376        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 377        "DAYS": "DAY",
 378        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 379        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 380        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 381        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 382    }
 383
 384    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 385        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 386        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 387        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 388        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 389        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 390            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 391            if e.args.get("windows")
 392            else ""
 393        ),
 394    }
 395
 396    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 397
 398    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 399
 400    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 401    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 402
 403    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 404        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 405        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 409        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 411        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 412        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 413        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 414        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 416        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 417        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 422        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 424        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 425        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 426        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 427        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 428        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 429        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 431        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 433        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 434        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 439        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 440        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 441        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 442        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 443        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 445        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 448        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 451        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 462        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 464        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 465        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 468        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 470        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 472        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 475        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 477        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 478        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 479        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480    }
 481
 482    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 483    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 484
 485    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 486    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 487        exp.Create,
 488        exp.Delete,
 489        exp.Drop,
 490        exp.From,
 491        exp.Insert,
 492        exp.Join,
 493        exp.Select,
 494        exp.Union,
 495        exp.Update,
 496        exp.Where,
 497        exp.With,
 498    )
 499
 500    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 501    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 502        exp.Binary,
 503        exp.Union,
 504    )
 505
 506    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 507    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 508        exp.Column,
 509        exp.Literal,
 510        exp.Neg,
 511        exp.Paren,
 512    )
 513
 514    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 515        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 516        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 517        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 518        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 519    }
 520
 521    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 522    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 523
 524    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 525
 526    __slots__ = (
 527        "pretty",
 528        "identify",
 529        "normalize",
 530        "pad",
 531        "_indent",
 532        "normalize_functions",
 533        "unsupported_level",
 534        "max_unsupported",
 535        "leading_comma",
 536        "max_text_width",
 537        "comments",
 538        "dialect",
 539        "unsupported_messages",
 540        "_escaped_quote_end",
 541        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 542    )
 543
 544    def __init__(
 545        self,
 546        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 547        identify: str | bool = False,
 548        normalize: bool = False,
 549        pad: int = 2,
 550        indent: int = 2,
 551        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 552        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 553        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 554        leading_comma: bool = False,
 555        max_text_width: int = 80,
 556        comments: bool = True,
 557        dialect: DialectType = None,
 558    ):
 559        import sqlglot
 560        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 561
 562        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 563        self.identify = identify
 564        self.normalize = normalize
 565        self.pad = pad
 566        self._indent = indent
 567        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 568        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 569        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 570        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 571        self.comments = comments
 572        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 573
 574        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 575        self.normalize_functions = (
 576            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 577        )
 578
 579        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 580        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 581            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 582        )
 583        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 584            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 585        )
 586
 587    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 588        """
 589        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 590
 591        Args:
 592            expression: The syntax tree.
 593            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 594                it is safer to copy.
 595
 596        Returns:
 597            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 598        """
 599        if copy:
 600            expression = expression.copy()
 601
 602        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 603
 604        self.unsupported_messages = []
 605        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 606
 607        if self.pretty:
 608            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 609
 610        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 611            return sql
 612
 613        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 614            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 615                logger.warning(msg)
 616        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 617            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 618
 619        return sql
 620
 621    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 622        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 623        if (
 624            not expression.parent
 625            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 626            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 627        ):
 628            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 629
 630            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 631
 632        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 633            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 634
 635            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 636
 637        return expression
 638
 639    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 640        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 641            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 642        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 643
 644    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 645        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 646
 647    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 648        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 649
 650    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 651        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 652        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 653        return comment
 654
 655    def maybe_comment(
 656        self,
 657        sql: str,
 658        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 659        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 660        separated: bool = False,
 661    ) -> str:
 662        comments = (
 663            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 664            if self.comments
 665            else None
 666        )
 667
 668        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 669            return sql
 670
 671        comments_sql = " ".join(
 672            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 673        )
 674
 675        if not comments_sql:
 676            return sql
 677
 678        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 679
 680        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 681            return (
 682                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 683                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 684                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 685            )
 686
 687        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 688
 689    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 690        this_sql = self.indent(
 691            (
 692                self.sql(expression)
 693                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 694                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 695            ),
 696            level=1,
 697            pad=0,
 698        )
 699        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 700
 701    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 702        original = self.identify
 703        self.identify = False
 704        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 705        self.identify = original
 706        return result
 707
 708    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 709        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 710            return name.upper()
 711        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 712            return name.lower()
 713        return name
 714
 715    def indent(
 716        self,
 717        sql: str,
 718        level: int = 0,
 719        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 720        skip_first: bool = False,
 721        skip_last: bool = False,
 722    ) -> str:
 723        if not self.pretty:
 724            return sql
 725
 726        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 727        lines = sql.split("\n")
 728
 729        return "\n".join(
 730            (
 731                line
 732                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 733                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 734            )
 735            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 736        )
 737
 738    def sql(
 739        self,
 740        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 741        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 742        comment: bool = True,
 743    ) -> str:
 744        if not expression:
 745            return ""
 746
 747        if isinstance(expression, str):
 748            return expression
 749
 750        if key:
 751            value = expression.args.get(key)
 752            if value:
 753                return self.sql(value)
 754            return ""
 755
 756        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 757
 758        if callable(transform):
 759            sql = transform(self, expression)
 760        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 761            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 762
 763            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 764                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 765            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 766                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 767            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 768                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 769            else:
 770                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 771        else:
 772            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 773
 774        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 775
 776    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 777        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 778        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 779        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 780
 781    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 782        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 783        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 784        options = expression.args.get("options")
 785        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 786        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 787        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 788        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 789        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 790
 791    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 792        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 793            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 794        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 795        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 796
 797    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 798        return ".".join(
 799            self.sql(part)
 800            for part in (
 801                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 802                expression.args.get("db"),
 803                expression.args.get("table"),
 804                expression.args.get("this"),
 805            )
 806            if part
 807        )
 808
 809    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 810        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 811
 812        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 813            join_mark = ""
 814            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 815
 816        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 817
 818    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 820        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 821        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 822        return f"{position}{this}"
 823
 824    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 825        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 826        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 827        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 828        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 829        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 830        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 831        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 832        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 833
 834        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 835            kind = ""
 836
 837        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 838
 839    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 841        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 842        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 843
 844    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 846        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 847            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 848        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 849            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 850        else:
 851            persisted = ""
 852        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 853
 854    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 855        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 856
 857    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 858        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 859            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 860        else:
 861            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 862
 863        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 864
 865    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 866        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 867    ) -> str:
 868        this = ""
 869        if expression.this is not None:
 870            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 871            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 872
 873        start = expression.args.get("start")
 874        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 875        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 876        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 877        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 878        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 879        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 880        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 881        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 882        cycle_sql = ""
 883
 884        if cycle is not None:
 885            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 886            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 887
 888        sequence_opts = ""
 889        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 890            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 891            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 892
 893        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 894        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 895
 896        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 897
 898    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 899        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 900    ) -> str:
 901        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 902        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 903        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 904
 905    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 906        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 907    ) -> str:
 908        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 909
 910    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 911        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 912
 913    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 914        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 915
 916    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 917        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 918        if desc is not None:
 919            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 920        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 921
 922    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 924        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 925        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 926        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 927        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 928        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 929        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 930
 931    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 932        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 933
 934    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 935        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 936        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 937        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 938
 939        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 940
 941        properties_sql = ""
 942        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 943            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 944        ):
 945            properties_sql = self.sql(
 946                exp.Properties(
 947                    expressions=[
 948                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 949                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 950                    ]
 951                )
 952            )
 953
 954        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 955        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 956
 957        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 958        if expression_sql:
 959            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 960
 961            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 962                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 963                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 964                        exp.Properties(
 965                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 966                        ),
 967                        wrapped=False,
 968                    )
 969                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 970                else:
 971                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 972
 973        postindex_props_sql = ""
 974        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 975            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 976                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 977                wrapped=False,
 978                prefix=" ",
 979            )
 980
 981        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 982        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 983        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 984
 985        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 986        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 987
 988        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 989        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 990            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 991                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 992                sep=" ",
 993                prefix=" ",
 994                wrapped=False,
 995            )
 996
 997        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 998
 999        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1000        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1001            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1002                exp.Properties(
1003                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1004                ),
1005                sep=" ",
1006                prefix=" ",
1007                wrapped=False,
1008            )
1009
1010        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1011        no_schema_binding = (
1012            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1013        )
1014
1015        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1016        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1017
1018        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1019        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1020
1021    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1022        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1023        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1024        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1025        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1026        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1027        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1028        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1029        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1030        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1031        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1032
1033        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1034        if cache is None:
1035            cache_str = ""
1036        elif cache is True:
1037            cache_str = " CACHE"
1038        else:
1039            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1040
1041        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1042        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1043
1044        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1045
1046    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1047        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1048        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1049        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1050        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1051
1052    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1053        style = expression.args.get("style")
1054        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1055        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1056
1057    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1058        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1059        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1060
1061    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1062        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1063        if with_:
1064            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1065        return sql
1066
1067    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1068        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1069        recursive = (
1070            "RECURSIVE "
1071            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1072            else ""
1073        )
1074
1075        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1076
1077    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1078        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1079
1080        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1081        if materialized is False:
1082            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1083        elif materialized:
1084            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1085
1086        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1087
1088    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1089        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1090        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1091        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1092
1093        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1094            columns = ""
1095            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1096
1097        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1098            alias = "_t"
1099
1100        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1101
1102    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1104        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1105            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1106        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1107
1108    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1110        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1111            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1112        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1113
1114    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1116        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1117            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1118        return this
1119
1120    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1121        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1122        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1123
1124        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1125            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1126            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1127
1128        if escape:
1129            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1130        else:
1131            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1132
1133        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1134        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1135
1136    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1137        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1138        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1139
1140    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1141        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1142        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1143        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1144        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1145
1146    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1147        type_value = expression.this
1148
1149        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1150            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1151        else:
1152            type_sql = (
1153                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1154                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1155                else type_value
1156            )
1157
1158        nested = ""
1159        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1160        values = ""
1161
1162        if interior:
1163            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1164                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1165                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1166                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1167                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1168                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1169            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1170                nested = f" {interior}"
1171            else:
1172                nested = f"({interior})"
1173
1174        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1175        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1176            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1177            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1178        ):
1179            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1180
1181        return type_sql
1182
1183    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1184        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1185        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1186        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1187        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1188
1189    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1190        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1191        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1192        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1193        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1194        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1195        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1196        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1197        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1198        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1199        if self.RETURNING_END:
1200            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1201        else:
1202            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1203        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1204
1205    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1207        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1208        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1209        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1210        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1211        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1212        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1213        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1214        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1215        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1216        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1217
1218    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1219        return self.set_operations(expression)
1220
1221    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1222        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1223
1224    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1225        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1226        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1227        count = expression.args.get("count")
1228        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1229        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1230            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1231        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1232        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1233
1234    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1235        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1236            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1237            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1238            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1239
1240        agg = expression.this
1241        agg_arg = agg.this
1242        cond = expression.expression.this
1243        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1244        return self.sql(agg)
1245
1246    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1247        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1248            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1249            return ""
1250
1251        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1252
1253    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1254        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1255        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1256        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1257        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1258        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1259        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1260        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1261        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1262        if include:
1263            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1264        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1265        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1266        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1267        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1268
1269        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1270
1271    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1272        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1273        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1274        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1275        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1276        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1277        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1278        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1279
1280        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1281
1282        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1283        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1284
1285    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1286        text = expression.name
1287        lower = text.lower()
1288        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1289        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1290        if (
1291            expression.quoted
1292            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1293            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1294            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1295        ):
1296            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1297        return text
1298
1299    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1300        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1301        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1302        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1303        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1304        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1305
1306    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1307        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1308        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1309
1310    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1311        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1312
1313    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1314        root_properties = []
1315        with_properties = []
1316
1317        for p in expression.expressions:
1318            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1319            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1320                with_properties.append(p)
1321            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1322                root_properties.append(p)
1323
1324        return self.root_properties(
1325            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1326        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1327
1328    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1329        if properties.expressions:
1330            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1331        return ""
1332
1333    def properties(
1334        self,
1335        properties: exp.Properties,
1336        prefix: str = "",
1337        sep: str = ", ",
1338        suffix: str = "",
1339        wrapped: bool = True,
1340    ) -> str:
1341        if properties.expressions:
1342            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1343            if expressions:
1344                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1345                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1346        return ""
1347
1348    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1349        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1350
1351    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1352        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1353        for p in properties.expressions:
1354            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1355            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1356                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1357            else:
1358                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1359
1360        return properties_locs
1361
1362    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1363        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1364            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1365        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1366
1367    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1368        property_cls = expression.__class__
1369        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1370            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1371
1372        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1373        if not property_name:
1374            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1375
1376        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1377
1378    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1379        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1380            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1381            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1382
1383            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1384            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1385                like = f"({like})"
1386
1387            return like
1388
1389        if expression.expressions:
1390            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1391
1392        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1393        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1394
1395    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1396        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1397        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1398        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1399
1400    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1401        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1402        local = expression.args.get("local")
1403        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1404        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1405        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1406        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1407        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1408
1409    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1410        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1411        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1412        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1413
1414    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1415        if expression.args.get("default"):
1416            property = "DEFAULT"
1417        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1418            property = "ON"
1419        else:
1420            property = "OFF"
1421        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1422
1423    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1424        if expression.args.get("no"):
1425            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1426        if expression.args.get("default"):
1427            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1428
1429        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1430        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1431
1432    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1433        default = expression.args.get("default")
1434        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1435        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1436        if default or minimum or maximum:
1437            if default:
1438                prop = "DEFAULT"
1439            elif minimum:
1440                prop = "MINIMUM"
1441            else:
1442                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1443            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1444        units = expression.args.get("units")
1445        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1446        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1447
1448    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1449        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1450        always = expression.args.get("always")
1451        default = expression.args.get("default")
1452        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1453        never = expression.args.get("never")
1454
1455        if autotemp is not None:
1456            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1457        elif always:
1458            prop = "ALWAYS"
1459        elif default:
1460            prop = "DEFAULT"
1461        elif manual:
1462            prop = "MANUAL"
1463        elif never:
1464            prop = "NEVER"
1465        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1466
1467    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1468        no = expression.args.get("no")
1469        no = " NO" if no else ""
1470        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1471        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1472        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1473        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1474        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1475
1476    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1477        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1478            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1479        if expression.this:
1480            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1481            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1482            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1483
1484        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1485        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1486        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1487
1488    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1490
1491        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1492        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1493            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1494        else:
1495            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1496
1497        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1498
1499    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1500        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1501        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1502        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1503        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1504        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1505        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1506        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1507
1508    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1509        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1510        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1511        statistics_sql = ""
1512        if statistics is not None:
1513            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1514        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1515
1516    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1517        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1518
1519        if expression.this:
1520            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1521            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1522
1523            if expression.expression:
1524                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1525                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1526
1527            sql = f"{sql})"
1528
1529        return f"{sql})"
1530
1531    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1532        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1533        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1534
1535        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1536            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1537        else:
1538            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1539
1540        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1541        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1542        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1543        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1544        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1545        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1546        if is_function:
1547            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1548        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1549
1550        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1551        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1552        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1553        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1554        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1555        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1556        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1557        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1558
1559        if self.RETURNING_END:
1560            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1561        else:
1562            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1563
1564        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1565        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1566
1567    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1568        return self.set_operations(expression)
1569
1570    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1571        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1572
1573    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1574        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1575
1576    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1577        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1578        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1580        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1581        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1582
1583    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1584        return expression.name
1585
1586    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1587        return expression.name
1588
1589    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1590        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1591
1592        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1593        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1594
1595        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1596        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1597        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1598
1599        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1600        if expressions:
1601            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1602            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1603
1604        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1605
1606    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1607        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1608
1609    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1610        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1611        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1612        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1613        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1614        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1615        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1616        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1617        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1618        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1619        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1620        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1621        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1622        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1623
1624    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1625        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1626
1627    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1628        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1629        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1630        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1631        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1632
1633    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1635        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1636        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1637        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1638
1639    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1640        return ".".join(
1641            self.sql(part)
1642            for part in (
1643                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1644                expression.args.get("db"),
1645                expression.args.get("this"),
1646            )
1647            if part is not None
1648        )
1649
1650    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1651        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1652        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1653        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1654        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1655        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1656        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1657        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1658        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1659        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1660        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1661        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1662        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1663        joins = self.indent(
1664            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1665        )
1666        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1667
1668        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1669        if file_format:
1670            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1671            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1672            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1673
1674        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1675        if ordinality:
1676            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1677            alias = ""
1678
1679        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1680        if when:
1681            table = f"{table} {when}"
1682
1683        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1684
1685    def tablesample_sql(
1686        self,
1687        expression: exp.TableSample,
1688        sep: str = " AS ",
1689        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1690    ) -> str:
1691        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1692            table = expression.this.copy()
1693            table.set("alias", None)
1694            this = self.sql(table)
1695            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1696        else:
1697            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1698            alias = ""
1699
1700        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1701        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1702        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1703        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1704        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1705        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1706        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1707        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1708        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1709
1710        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1711        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1712            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1713
1714        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1715        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1716            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1717
1718        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1719        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1720            expr = f"({expr})"
1721
1722        return (
1723            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1724        )
1725
1726    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1727        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1728
1729        if expression.this:
1730            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1731            if not expressions:
1732                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1733
1734            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1735            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1736            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1737            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1738            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1739
1740        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1741        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1742        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1743        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1744        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1745        if include_nulls is not None:
1746            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1747        else:
1748            nulls = ""
1749        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1750
1751    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1752        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1753        kind = expression.text("kind")
1754        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1755        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1756
1757    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1758        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1759
1760    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1762        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1763        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1764        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1765        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1766        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1767        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1768        if self.RETURNING_END:
1769            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1770        else:
1771            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1772        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1773        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1774
1775    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1776        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1777
1778        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1779        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1780            args = self.expressions(expression)
1781            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1782            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1783            values = (
1784                f"({values})"
1785                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1786                else values
1787            )
1788            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1789
1790        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1791        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1792        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1793
1794        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1795
1796        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1797            row = tup.expressions
1798
1799            if i == 0 and column_names:
1800                row = [
1801                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1802                ]
1803
1804            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1805
1806        if self.pretty:
1807            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1808            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1809            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1810            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1811            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1812
1813        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1814        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1815        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1816
1817    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1818        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1819
1820    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1821        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1822        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1823        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1824
1825    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1826        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1827
1828    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1829        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1830        if group_by_all is True:
1831            modifier = " ALL"
1832        elif group_by_all is False:
1833            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1834        else:
1835            modifier = ""
1836
1837        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1838
1839        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1840        grouping_sets = (
1841            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1842        )
1843
1844        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1845        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1846            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1847        else:
1848            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1849            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1850
1851        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1852        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1853            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1854        else:
1855            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1856            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1857
1858        groupings = csv(
1859            grouping_sets,
1860            cube_sql,
1861            rollup_sql,
1862            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1863            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1864        )
1865
1866        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1867            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1868
1869        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1870
1871    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1872        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1873        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1874
1875    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1876        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1877        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1878        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1879        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1880        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1881        return start + connect
1882
1883    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1884        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1885
1886    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1887        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1888            side = None
1889        else:
1890            side = expression.side
1891
1892        op_sql = " ".join(
1893            op
1894            for op in (
1895                expression.method,
1896                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1897                side,
1898                expression.kind,
1899                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1900            )
1901            if op
1902        )
1903        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1904        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1905        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1906        using = expression.args.get("using")
1907
1908        if not on_sql and using:
1909            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1910
1911        this = expression.this
1912        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1913
1914        if on_sql:
1915            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1916            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1917            if using:
1918                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1919            else:
1920                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1921        elif not op_sql:
1922            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1923                return f" {this_sql}"
1924
1925            return f", {this_sql}"
1926
1927        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1928        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1929
1930    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1931        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1932        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1933        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1934
1935    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1936        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1937
1938        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1939        if cross_apply is True:
1940            op = "INNER JOIN "
1941        elif cross_apply is False:
1942            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1943        else:
1944            op = ""
1945
1946        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1947
1948    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1950
1951        if expression.args.get("view"):
1952            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1953            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1954            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1955            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1956            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1957            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1958
1959        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1960        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1961        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1962
1963    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1965
1966        args = [
1967            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1968            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1969            if e
1970        ]
1971
1972        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1973        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1974        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1975        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1976
1977        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1978
1979    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1981        value = expression.expression
1982        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1983        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1984        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1985        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1986
1987    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1988        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1989        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1991        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1992        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1993        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1994        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1995        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1996
1997    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1998        expressions = (
1999            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2000        )
2001        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2002        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2003
2004    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2005        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2006
2007    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2008        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2009            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2010            return ""
2011
2012        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2013        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2014        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2015        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2016
2017        if wait is not None:
2018            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2019                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2020            else:
2021                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2022
2023        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2024
2025    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2026        text = expression.this or ""
2027        if expression.is_string:
2028            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2029        return text
2030
2031    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2032        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2033            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2034            text = "".join(
2035                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2036            )
2037
2038        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2039            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2040        )
2041
2042    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2043        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2044        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2045        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2046        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2047        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2048        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2049        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2050        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2051        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2052        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2053        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2054
2055    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2056        return "NULL"
2057
2058    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2059        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2060
2061    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2063        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2064        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2065        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2066        interpolated_values = [
2067            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2068            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2069        ]
2070        interpolate = (
2071            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2072        )
2073        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2074
2075    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2076        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2077        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2078        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2079        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2080        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2081        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2082        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2083
2084    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2085        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2086
2087    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2088        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2089
2090    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2091        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2092
2093    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2094        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2095        asc = not desc
2096
2097        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2098        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2099        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2100        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2101        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2102
2103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2104
2105        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2106        nulls_sort_change = ""
2107        if nulls_first and (
2108            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2109        ):
2110            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2111        elif (
2112            nulls_last
2113            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2114            and not nulls_are_last
2115        ):
2116            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2117
2118        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2119        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2120            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2121            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2122                self.unsupported(
2123                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2124                )
2125                nulls_sort_change = ""
2126            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2127                if expression.this.is_int:
2128                    self.unsupported(
2129                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2130                    )
2131                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2132                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2133                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2134                nulls_sort_change = ""
2135
2136        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2137        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2138
2139        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2140
2141    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2142        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2143        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2144
2145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2146
2147        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2148
2149    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2150        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2151        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2152        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2153        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2154        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2155        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2156        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2157        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2158        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2159        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2160        definition_sqls = [
2161            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2162            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2163        ]
2164        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2165        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2166        body = "".join(
2167            (
2168                partition,
2169                order,
2170                measures,
2171                rows,
2172                after,
2173                pattern,
2174                define,
2175            )
2176        )
2177        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2178        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2179        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2180
2181    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2182        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2183
2184        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2185            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2186        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2187            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2188
2189        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2190        if options:
2191            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2192
2193        return csv(
2194            *sqls,
2195            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2196            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2197            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2198            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2199            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2200            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2201            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2202            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2203            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2204            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2205            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2206            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2207            options,
2208            sep="",
2209        )
2210
2211    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2212        return ""
2213
2214    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2215        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2216    ) -> t.List[str]:
2217        return [
2218            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2219            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2220        ]
2221
2222    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2223        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2224        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2225        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2226
2227    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2228        into = expression.args.get("into")
2229        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2230            into.pop()
2231
2232        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2233        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2234        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2235        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2236
2237        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2238        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2239            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2240            limit.pop()
2241        else:
2242            top = ""
2243
2244        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2245
2246        if kind:
2247            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2248                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2249            else:
2250                if kind == "STRUCT":
2251                    expressions = self.expressions(
2252                        sqls=[
2253                            self.sql(
2254                                exp.Struct(
2255                                    expressions=[
2256                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2257                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2258                                        else e
2259                                        for e in expression.expressions
2260                                    ]
2261                                )
2262                            )
2263                        ]
2264                    )
2265                kind = ""
2266
2267        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2268        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2269        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2270        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2271        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2272            expression,
2273            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2274            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2275            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2276        )
2277
2278        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2279
2280        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2281            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2282                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2283            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2284                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2285            else:
2286                table_kind = ""
2287            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2288
2289        return sql
2290
2291    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2292        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2293        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2294        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2295
2296    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2297        if expression.expressions:
2298            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2299        return ""
2300
2301    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2302        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2303        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2304        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2305        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2306        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2307
2308    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2309        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2310        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2311
2312    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2314        kind = expression.text("kind")
2315        if kind:
2316            kind = f"{kind}."
2317        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2318
2319    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2320        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2321
2322    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2323        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2324        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2325
2326        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2327        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2328
2329        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2330        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2331
2332    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2333        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2334        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2335
2336    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2337        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2338            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2339            order = expression.args.get("order")
2340
2341            if limit or order:
2342                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2343
2344                if limit:
2345                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2346                if order:
2347                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2348                return self.sql(select)
2349
2350        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2351        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2352
2353        while stack:
2354            node = stack.pop()
2355
2356            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2357                stack.append(node.expression)
2358                stack.append(
2359                    self.maybe_comment(
2360                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2361                        comments=node.comments,
2362                        separated=True,
2363                    )
2364                )
2365                stack.append(node.this)
2366            else:
2367                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2368
2369        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2370        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2371        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2372
2373    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2374        return self.set_operations(expression)
2375
2376    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2377        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2378        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2379        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2380        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2381
2382    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2383        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2384
2385        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2386        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2387
2388        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2389            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2390                alias.append("columns", offset)
2391
2392        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2393            columns = alias.columns
2394            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2395        else:
2396            alias = self.sql(alias)
2397
2398        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2399        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2400            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2401        else:
2402            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2403                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2404            elif offset:
2405                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2406            else:
2407                suffix = alias
2408
2409        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2410
2411    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2412        return ""
2413
2414    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2415        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2416        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2417
2418    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2419        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2420        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2421        order = expression.args.get("order")
2422        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2423        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2424        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2425        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2426
2427        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2428
2429        first = expression.args.get("first")
2430        if first is None:
2431            first = ""
2432        else:
2433            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2434
2435        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2436            return f"{this} {alias}"
2437
2438        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2439        return f"{this} ({args})"
2440
2441    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2442        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2443        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2444
2445    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2446        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2447        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2448        end = (
2449            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2450            or "CURRENT ROW"
2451        )
2452        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2453
2454    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2456        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2457        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2458
2459    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2460        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2461        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2462        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2463        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2464
2465    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2466        return apply_index_offset(
2467            expression.this,
2468            expression.expressions,
2469            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2470        )
2471
2472    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2473        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2474        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2475        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2476
2477    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2478        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2479
2480    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2481        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2482        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2483            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2484                this = self.wrap(this)
2485            return f"ANY{this}"
2486        return f"ANY {this}"
2487
2488    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2489        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2490
2491    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2492        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2493        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2494
2495        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2496            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2497            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2498
2499        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2500
2501        if default:
2502            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2503
2504        statements.append("END")
2505
2506        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2507            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2508
2509        return " ".join(statements)
2510
2511    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2513        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2514        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2515
2516    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2517        order = expression.args.get("order")
2518        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2519        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2520
2521    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2522        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2523        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2524        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2525
2526    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2527        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2528
2529        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2530            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2531        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2532            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2533        else:
2534            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2535
2536    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2537        args = expression.expressions
2538        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2539            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2540
2541        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2542            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2543
2544        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2545            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2546
2547        return args
2548
2549    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2550        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2551
2552        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2553        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2554            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2555
2556        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2557
2558    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2559        return self.func(
2560            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2561        )
2562
2563    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2564        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2565        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2566
2567    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2568        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2569        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2570        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2571        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2572        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2573        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2574        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2575        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2576
2577    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2578        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2579        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2580        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2581        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2582
2583    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2584        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2585
2586    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2587        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2588        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2589        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2590
2591    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2592        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2593
2594    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2595        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2596        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2597
2598    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2599        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2600            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2601            if not callable(transform):
2602                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2603                return ""
2604
2605            return transform(self, expression)
2606
2607        if isinstance(expression, int):
2608            return str(expression)
2609
2610        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2611            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2612            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2613        else:
2614            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2615            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2616
2617        return escaped
2618
2619    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2620        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2621
2622    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2623        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2624        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2625
2626        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2627        if unique_keys is not None:
2628            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2629        else:
2630            unique_keys = ""
2631
2632        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2633        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2634        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2635        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2636
2637        return self.func(
2638            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2639            *expression.expressions,
2640            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2641        )
2642
2643    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2644        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2645
2646    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2647        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2648        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2649        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2650        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2651        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2652        return self.func(
2653            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2654        )
2655
2656    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2658        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2659        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2660        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2661        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2662        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2663        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2664        return self.func(
2665            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2666            this,
2667            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2668        )
2669
2670    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2671        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2672        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2673        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2674
2675        if nested_schema:
2676            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2677
2678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2679        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2680        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2681        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2682
2683    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2684        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2685
2686    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2688        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2689        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2690        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2691        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2692        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2693        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2694        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2695        return self.func(
2696            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2697        )
2698
2699    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2701        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2702        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2703        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2704        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2705        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2706
2707    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2709        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2710        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2711        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2712        with_ = (
2713            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2714            if expressions
2715            else ""
2716        )
2717        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2718
2719    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2720        query = expression.args.get("query")
2721        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2722        field = expression.args.get("field")
2723        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2724
2725        if query:
2726            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2727        elif unnest:
2728            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2729        elif field:
2730            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2731        else:
2732            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2733
2734        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2735
2736    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2737        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2738
2739    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2740        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2741        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2742            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2743        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2744
2745        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2746            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2747            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2748
2749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2750        if this:
2751            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2752            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2753
2754        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2755
2756    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2757        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2758
2759    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2761        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2762        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2763        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2764        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2765        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2766
2767    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2768        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2769
2770    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2771        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2772        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2773
2774    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2775        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2776        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2777        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2778        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2779
2780    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2781        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2782
2783    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2784        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2785        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2786        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2787
2788    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2789        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2790        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2791
2792        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2793            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2794        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2795            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2796
2797        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2798
2799    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2800        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2801
2802    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2804        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2805        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2806
2807    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2809        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2810        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2811
2812    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2813        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2814        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2815        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2816
2817    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2818        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2819
2820    def and_sql(
2821        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2822    ) -> str:
2823        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2824
2825    def or_sql(
2826        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2827    ) -> str:
2828        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2829
2830    def xor_sql(
2831        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2832    ) -> str:
2833        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2834
2835    def connector_sql(
2836        self,
2837        expression: exp.Connector,
2838        op: str,
2839        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2840    ) -> str:
2841        if stack is not None:
2842            if expression.expressions:
2843                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2844            else:
2845                stack.append(expression.right)
2846                if expression.comments:
2847                    for comment in expression.comments:
2848                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2849                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2850            return op
2851
2852        stack = [expression]
2853        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2854        ops = set()
2855
2856        while stack:
2857            node = stack.pop()
2858            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2859                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2860            else:
2861                sql = self.sql(node)
2862                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2863                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2864                else:
2865                    sqls.append(sql)
2866
2867        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2868        return sep.join(sqls)
2869
2870    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2871        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2872
2873    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2874        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2875
2876    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2877        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2878
2879    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2880        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2881
2882    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2883        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2884
2885    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2886        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2887
2888    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2889        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2890        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2891        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2892        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2893        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2894        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2895        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2896
2897    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2898        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2899        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2900
2901    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2902        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2903
2904    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2905        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2906            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2907        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2908
2909    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2910        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2911
2912    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2914        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2915        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2916        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2917        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2918        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2919
2920    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2922        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2923        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2924        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2925        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2926        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2927        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2928        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2929        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2930
2931    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2932        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2933        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2934        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2935        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2936
2937        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2938            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2939
2940        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2941
2942    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2943        return "BEGIN"
2944
2945    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2946        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2947        if chain is not None:
2948            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2949
2950        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2951
2952    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2953        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2954        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2955        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2956
2957    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2958        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2959
2960        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2961        if dtype:
2962            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2963            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2964            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2965            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2966            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2967
2968        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2969        if default:
2970            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2971
2972        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2973        if comment:
2974            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2975
2976        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2977            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2978
2979        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2980
2981    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2982        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2983            # Remove db from tables
2984            expression = expression.transform(
2985                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2986            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2988        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2989
2990    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2991        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2992        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2993        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2994        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2995
2996    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2997        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2998
2999        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3000            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3001        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3002            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3003        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3004            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3005        else:
3006            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3007
3008        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3009        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3010        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3011        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3012        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
3013
3014    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3015        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3016            return self.expressions(
3017                expression,
3018                key="actions",
3019                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3020            )
3021        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3022
3023    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3024        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3025        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3026        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3027
3028    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3029        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3030
3031    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3032        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3033
3034        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3035            case = exp.case()
3036            for arg in expression.expressions:
3037                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3038            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3039
3040        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3041
3042        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3043        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3044        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3045
3046    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3047        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3048
3049    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3050        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3051
3052    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3053        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3054        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3055        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3056        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3057
3058    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3059        return self.sql(
3060            exp.Cast(
3061                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3062                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3063            )
3064        )
3065
3066    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3067        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3068            return self.func(
3069                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3070            )
3071        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3072
3073    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3074        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3075
3076        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3077            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3078
3079        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3080            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3081                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3082
3083        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3084            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3085                return self.sql(
3086                    exp.cast(
3087                        l / r,
3088                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3089                    )
3090                )
3091
3092        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3093
3094    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3096
3097    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3098        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3099
3100    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3101        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3102
3103    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3104        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3105
3106    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3107        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3108
3109    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3110        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3111
3112    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3113        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3114
3115    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3116        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3117
3118    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3119        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3120
3121    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3122        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3123
3124    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3125        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3126
3127    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3128        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3129            return self.sql(
3130                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3131            )
3132        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3133
3134    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3135        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3136
3137    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3138        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3139
3140    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3141        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3142
3143    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3144        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3145
3146    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3147        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3148
3149    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3150        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3151
3152    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3153        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3154
3155    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3156        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3157
3158    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3159        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3160
3161    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3162        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3163
3164    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3165        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3166
3167    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3168        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3169
3170    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3171        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3172
3173    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3174        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3175            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3176            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3177
3178        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3179
3180    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3181        this = expression.this
3182        expr = expression.expression
3183
3184        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3185            this, expr = expr, this
3186        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3187            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3188                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3189
3190            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3191
3192        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3193
3194    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3195        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3196        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3197        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3198        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3199        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3200
3201    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3202        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3203        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3204
3205    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3206        args = []
3207
3208        for key in expression.arg_types:
3209            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3210
3211            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3212                for value in arg_value:
3213                    args.append(value)
3214            elif arg_value is not None:
3215                args.append(arg_value)
3216
3217        if self.normalize_functions:
3218            name = expression.sql_name()
3219        else:
3220            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3221
3222        return self.func(name, *args)
3223
3224    def func(
3225        self,
3226        name: str,
3227        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3228        prefix: str = "(",
3229        suffix: str = ")",
3230    ) -> str:
3231        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3232
3233    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3234        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3235        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3236            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3237        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3238
3239    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3240        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3241
3242    def format_time(
3243        self,
3244        expression: exp.Expression,
3245        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3246        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3247    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3248        return format_time(
3249            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3250            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3251            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3252        )
3253
3254    def expressions(
3255        self,
3256        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3257        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3258        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3259        flat: bool = False,
3260        indent: bool = True,
3261        skip_first: bool = False,
3262        skip_last: bool = False,
3263        sep: str = ", ",
3264        prefix: str = "",
3265        dynamic: bool = False,
3266        new_line: bool = False,
3267    ) -> str:
3268        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3269
3270        if not expressions:
3271            return ""
3272
3273        if flat:
3274            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3275
3276        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3277
3278        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3279        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3280            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3281
3282        result_sqls = []
3283        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3284            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3285            if not sql:
3286                continue
3287
3288            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3289
3290            if self.pretty:
3291                if self.leading_comma:
3292                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3293                else:
3294                    result_sqls.append(
3295                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3296                    )
3297            else:
3298                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3299
3300        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3301            if new_line:
3302                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3303                result_sqls.append("")
3304            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3305        else:
3306            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3307        return (
3308            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3309            if indent
3310            else result_sql
3311        )
3312
3313    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3314        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3315        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3316        if flat:
3317            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3318        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3319
3320    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3321        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3322        if not property_name:
3323            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3324        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3325
3326    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3327        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3328
3329    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3330        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3331
3332    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3334        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3335        expressions = (
3336            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3337        )
3338        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3339
3340    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3342        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3343        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3344
3345    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3346        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3347
3348    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3349        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3350        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3351        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3352        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3353
3354        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3355        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3356            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3357            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3358            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3359            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3360        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3361            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3362                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3363            else:
3364                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3365        else:
3366            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3367        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3368
3369    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3370        table = expression.this
3371        table_alias = ""
3372
3373        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3374        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3375            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3376            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3377
3378        this = self.sql(table)
3379        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3380        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3381        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3382        sep = self.sep()
3383
3384        return self.prepend_ctes(
3385            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3386        )
3387
3388    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3389        if expression.args.get("format"):
3390            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3391
3392        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3393
3394    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3395        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3396            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3397            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3398
3399        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3400        if not fmt:
3401            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3402            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3403
3404        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3405
3406    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3408        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3409        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3410        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3411        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3412
3413    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3414        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3415        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3416        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3417        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3418
3419    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3420        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3421
3422    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3423        return ""
3424
3425    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3426        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3427        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3428        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3429        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3430        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3431
3432    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3433        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3434        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3435
3436        if having:
3437            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3438
3439        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3440
3441    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3442        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3443        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3444        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3445        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3446        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3447        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3448        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3449        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3450        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3451        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3452        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3453        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3454        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3455
3456    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3457        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3458        if key_block_size:
3459            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3460
3461        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3462        if using:
3463            return f"USING {using}"
3464
3465        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3466        if parser:
3467            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3468
3469        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3470        if comment:
3471            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3472
3473        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3474        if visible is not None:
3475            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3476
3477        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3478        if engine_attr:
3479            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3480
3481        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3482        if secondary_engine_attr:
3483            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3484
3485        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3486        return ""
3487
3488    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3489        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3490        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3491
3492    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3493        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3494        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3496        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3497        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3498        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3499        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3500        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3501        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3502        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3503        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3504
3505    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3506        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3507            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3508
3509        case = exp.Case().when(
3510            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3511            expression.args["true"],
3512            copy=False,
3513        )
3514        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3515        if else_cond:
3516            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3517
3518        return self.sql(case)
3519
3520    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3521        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3522        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3523        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3524        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3525        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3526        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3527
3528    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3529        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3530
3531    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3532        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3533
3534    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3535        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3536        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3537        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3538        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3539        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3540        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3541
3542    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3544        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3545        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3546
3547    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3549        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3550        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3551
3552    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3553        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3554
3555    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3556        arg = expression.this
3557        if not arg.type:
3558            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3559
3560            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3561
3562        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3563            return self.sql(arg)
3564
3565        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3566        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3567
3568    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3569        this = expression.this
3570        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3571            return self.sql(this)
3572
3573        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3574
3575    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3576        this = expression.this
3577        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3578            return self.sql(this)
3579
3580        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3581
3582    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3583        this = expression.this
3584        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3585
3586        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3587            return self.sql(
3588                exp.cast(
3589                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3590                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3591                )
3592            )
3593
3594        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3595            return self.sql(this)
3596
3597        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3598
3599    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3600        return self.sql(
3601            exp.func(
3602                "DATEDIFF",
3603                expression.this,
3604                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3605                "day",
3606            )
3607        )
3608
3609    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3610        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3611            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3612
3613        unit = expression.text("unit")
3614        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3615            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3616
3617        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3618
3619    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3620        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3621
3622        return self.func(
3623            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3624        )
3625
3626    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3627        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3628            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3629            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3630            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3631            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3632
3633        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3634
3635        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3636        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3637            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3638
3639        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3640
3641    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3642        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3643        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3644
3645    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3646        expression.set(
3647            "expressions",
3648            [
3649                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3650                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3651                else e
3652                for e in expression.expressions
3653            ],
3654        )
3655
3656        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3657
3658    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3659        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3660        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3661
3662        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3663
3664    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3665        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3666        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3667
3668        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3669
3670        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3671        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3672
3673        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3674        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3675
3676        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3677        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3678
3679        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3680        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3681
3682        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3683
3684    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3685    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3686    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3687        to = expression.this
3688        value = expression.expression
3689        style = expression.args.get("style")
3690        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3691        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3692
3693        if not to or not value:
3694            return ""
3695
3696        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3697        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3698            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3699
3700        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3701        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3702
3703        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3704        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3705            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3706
3707            style_value = style.name
3708            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3709            if not converted_style:
3710                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3711
3712            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3713
3714            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3715                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3716            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3717                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3718            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3719                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3720            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3721                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3722
3723        if not transformed:
3724            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3725
3726        return self.sql(transformed)
3727
3728    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3729        this = expression.this
3730        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3731            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3732            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3733
3734        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3735            return f".{this}"
3736
3737        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3738        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3739
3740    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3741        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3742        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3743
3744    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3745        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3746            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3747
3748            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3749
3750        return expression
3751
3752    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3753        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3754            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3755            mods = sorted(
3756                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3757                key=lambda x: 0
3758                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3759                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3760            )
3761
3762            if mods:
3763                mod = mods[0]
3764                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3765                this.meta["inline"] = True
3766                mod.this.replace(this)
3767                return self.sql(expression.this)
3768
3769            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3770
3771            if agg_func:
3772                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3773
3774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3775
3776    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3777        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3778        if self.pretty:
3779            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3780        return string
3781
3782    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3783        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3784        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3785
3786        if not value:
3787            return option
3788
3789        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3790
3791        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3792
3793    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3794        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3795        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3796            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3797            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3798            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}"
3799        else:
3800            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3801            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3802            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
3803
3804        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3805        storage = f" {storage}" if storage else ""
3806
3807        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3808        encryption = f"ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3809
3810        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3811        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3812
3813        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3814        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3815
3816        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3817
3818    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3820        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3821
3822        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3823        credentials = f" {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3824
3825        kind = " FROM " if expression.args.get("kind") else " TO "
3826        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3827
3828        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3829        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True, sep=sep)
3830        if params:
3831            params = f" WITH ({params})" if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED else f" {params}"
3832
3833        return f"COPY{this}{kind}{files}{credentials}{params}"