sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 118        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
 119        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 120        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 121        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 124        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 125        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 126        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 130        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 131        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 135        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 138        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 139        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 141        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 142        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 143        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 144        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 145        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 146        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 147        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 148        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 149        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 150        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 151        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 152        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 153        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 154        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 155        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 156        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 157        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 158        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 159        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 160        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 161        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 162        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 163        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 164        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 165        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 166        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 169        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 173        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 175        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 177            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 178        ),
 179        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 180        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 181        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 183        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 184        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 185        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 187        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 188        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 189        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 190        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 192        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 193        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 194        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 195        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 196        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 197        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 198        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 199        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 200        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 201        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 202        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 203        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 205        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 206        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 207        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 208        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 209        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 210        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 211        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 212        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 213    }
 214
 215    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 216    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 217    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 218    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 219
 220    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 221    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 222    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 223
 224    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 225    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 226
 227    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 228    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 229
 230    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 231    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 232
 233    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 234    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 235
 236    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 237    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 238
 239    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 240    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 241
 242    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 243    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 244
 245    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 246    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 247
 248    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 249    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 250
 251    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 252    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 253
 254    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 255    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 256
 257    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 258    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 259
 260    # Whether join hints should be generated
 261    JOIN_HINTS = True
 262
 263    # Whether table hints should be generated
 264    TABLE_HINTS = True
 265
 266    # Whether query hints should be generated
 267    QUERY_HINTS = True
 268
 269    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 270    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 271
 272    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 273    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 274
 275    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 276    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 277
 278    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 279    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 280
 281    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 282    RETURNING_END = True
 283
 284    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 285    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 286
 287    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 288    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 289
 290    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 291    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 292
 293    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 294    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 295
 296    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 297    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 298    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 299    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 300
 301    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 302    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 303
 304    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 305    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 306
 307    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 308    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 309
 310    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 311    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 312
 313    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 314    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 315
 316    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 317    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 318
 319    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 320    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 321
 322    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 323    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 324
 325    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 326    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 327
 328    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 329    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 330
 331    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 332    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 333
 334    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 335    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 336
 337    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 338    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 339
 340    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 341    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 342
 343    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 344    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 345
 346    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 347    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 348
 349    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 350    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 351
 352    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 353    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 354
 355    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 356    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 357
 358    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 359    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 360
 361    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 362    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 363
 364    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 365    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 366
 367    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 368    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 369
 370    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 371    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 372
 373    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 374    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 375
 376    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 377    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 378    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 379
 380    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 381    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 382
 383    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 384    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 385
 386    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 387    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 388
 389    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 390    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 391
 392    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 393    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 394
 395    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 396    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 397
 398    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 399    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 400    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 401    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 402
 403    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 404    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 405
 406    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 407    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 408
 409    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 410    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 411
 412    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 413    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 414
 415    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 416    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 417
 418    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 419    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 420
 421    # The HEX function name
 422    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 423
 424    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 425    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 426
 427    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 428    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 429
 430    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 431    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 432
 433    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 434    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 435
 436    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 437    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 438
 439    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 440    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 441
 442    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 443    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 444
 445    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 446    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 447
 448    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 449    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 450
 451    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 452    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 453
 454    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 455    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 456    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 457    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 458    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 459
 460    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 461        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 462        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 463        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 464        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 465        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 466        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 467        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 468        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 469        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 470        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 471        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 472        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 473    }
 474
 475    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 476        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 477        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 478        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 479        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 480        "DAYS": "DAY",
 481        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 482        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 483        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 484        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 485    }
 486
 487    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 488        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 489        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 490        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 491        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 492            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 493            if e.args.get("windows")
 494            else ""
 495        ),
 496        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 497    }
 498
 499    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 500
 501    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 502
 503    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 504    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 505
 506    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 507
 508    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 509        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 511        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 515        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 517        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 524        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 526        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 527        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 529        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 533        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 536        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 537        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 538        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 539        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 540        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 541        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 543        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 546        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 547        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 552        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 553        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 554        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 555        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 556        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 558        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 561        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 564        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 572        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 575        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 576        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 577        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 578        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 579        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 580        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 581        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 582        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 583        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 584        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 585        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 586        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 587        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 588        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 589        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 590        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 591        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 592        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 593        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 594        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 595        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 596        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 597        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 598        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 599        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 600    }
 601
 602    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 603    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 604
 605    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 606    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 607        exp.Command,
 608        exp.Create,
 609        exp.Describe,
 610        exp.Delete,
 611        exp.Drop,
 612        exp.From,
 613        exp.Insert,
 614        exp.Join,
 615        exp.MultitableInserts,
 616        exp.Select,
 617        exp.SetOperation,
 618        exp.Update,
 619        exp.Where,
 620        exp.With,
 621    )
 622
 623    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 624    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 625        exp.Binary,
 626        exp.SetOperation,
 627    )
 628
 629    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 630    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 631        exp.Column,
 632        exp.Literal,
 633        exp.Neg,
 634        exp.Paren,
 635    )
 636
 637    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 638        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 639        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 640        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 641        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 642    }
 643
 644    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 645    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 646
 647    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 648
 649    __slots__ = (
 650        "pretty",
 651        "identify",
 652        "normalize",
 653        "pad",
 654        "_indent",
 655        "normalize_functions",
 656        "unsupported_level",
 657        "max_unsupported",
 658        "leading_comma",
 659        "max_text_width",
 660        "comments",
 661        "dialect",
 662        "unsupported_messages",
 663        "_escaped_quote_end",
 664        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 665        "_next_name",
 666        "_identifier_start",
 667        "_identifier_end",
 668        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 669    )
 670
 671    def __init__(
 672        self,
 673        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 674        identify: str | bool = False,
 675        normalize: bool = False,
 676        pad: int = 2,
 677        indent: int = 2,
 678        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 679        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 680        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 681        leading_comma: bool = False,
 682        max_text_width: int = 80,
 683        comments: bool = True,
 684        dialect: DialectType = None,
 685    ):
 686        import sqlglot
 687        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 688
 689        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 690        self.identify = identify
 691        self.normalize = normalize
 692        self.pad = pad
 693        self._indent = indent
 694        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 695        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 696        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 697        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 698        self.comments = comments
 699        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 700
 701        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 702        self.normalize_functions = (
 703            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 704        )
 705
 706        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 707        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 708            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 709        )
 710        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 711
 712        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 713
 714        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 715        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 716
 717        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 718
 719    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 720        """
 721        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 722
 723        Args:
 724            expression: The syntax tree.
 725            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 726                it is safer to copy.
 727
 728        Returns:
 729            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 730        """
 731        if copy:
 732            expression = expression.copy()
 733
 734        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 735
 736        self.unsupported_messages = []
 737        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 738
 739        if self.pretty:
 740            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 741
 742        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 743            return sql
 744
 745        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 746            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 747                logger.warning(msg)
 748        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 749            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 750
 751        return sql
 752
 753    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 754        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 755        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 756
 757        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 758            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 759
 760            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 761
 762        return expression
 763
 764    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 765        if (
 766            not expression.parent
 767            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 768            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 769        ):
 770            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 771
 772            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 773        return expression
 774
 775    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 776        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 777            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 778        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 779
 780    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 781        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 782
 783    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 784        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 785
 786    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 787        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 788        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 789        return comment
 790
 791    def maybe_comment(
 792        self,
 793        sql: str,
 794        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 795        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 796        separated: bool = False,
 797    ) -> str:
 798        comments = (
 799            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 800            if self.comments
 801            else None
 802        )
 803
 804        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 805            return sql
 806
 807        comments_sql = " ".join(
 808            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 809        )
 810
 811        if not comments_sql:
 812            return sql
 813
 814        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 815
 816        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 817            return (
 818                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 819                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 820                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 821            )
 822
 823        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 824
 825    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 826        this_sql = (
 827            self.sql(expression)
 828            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 829            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 830        )
 831        if not this_sql:
 832            return "()"
 833
 834        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 835        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 836
 837    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 838        original = self.identify
 839        self.identify = False
 840        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 841        self.identify = original
 842        return result
 843
 844    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 845        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 846            return name.upper()
 847        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 848            return name.lower()
 849        return name
 850
 851    def indent(
 852        self,
 853        sql: str,
 854        level: int = 0,
 855        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 856        skip_first: bool = False,
 857        skip_last: bool = False,
 858    ) -> str:
 859        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 860            return sql
 861
 862        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 863        lines = sql.split("\n")
 864
 865        return "\n".join(
 866            (
 867                line
 868                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 869                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 870            )
 871            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 872        )
 873
 874    def sql(
 875        self,
 876        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 877        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 878        comment: bool = True,
 879    ) -> str:
 880        if not expression:
 881            return ""
 882
 883        if isinstance(expression, str):
 884            return expression
 885
 886        if key:
 887            value = expression.args.get(key)
 888            if value:
 889                return self.sql(value)
 890            return ""
 891
 892        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 893
 894        if callable(transform):
 895            sql = transform(self, expression)
 896        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 897            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 898
 899            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 900                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 901            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 902                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 903            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 904                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 905            else:
 906                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 907        else:
 908            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 909
 910        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 911
 912    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 913        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 914        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 915        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 916
 917    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 918        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 919        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 920        options = expression.args.get("options")
 921        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 922        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 923        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 924        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 925        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 926
 927    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 928        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 929            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 930        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 931        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 932
 933    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 934        return ".".join(
 935            self.sql(part)
 936            for part in (
 937                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 938                expression.args.get("db"),
 939                expression.args.get("table"),
 940                expression.args.get("this"),
 941            )
 942            if part
 943        )
 944
 945    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 946        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 947
 948        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 949            join_mark = ""
 950            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 951
 952        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 953
 954    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 955        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 956        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 957        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 958        return f"{position}{this}"
 959
 960    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 961        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 962        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 963        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 964        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 965        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 966        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 967        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 968        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 969
 970        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 971            kind = ""
 972
 973        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 974
 975    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 977        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 978        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 979
 980    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 981        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 982        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 983            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 984        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 985            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 986        else:
 987            persisted = ""
 988        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 989
 990    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 991        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 992
 993    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 994        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 995            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 996        else:
 997            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 998
 999        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
1000
1001    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
1002        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
1003    ) -> str:
1004        this = ""
1005        if expression.this is not None:
1006            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1007            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1008
1009        start = expression.args.get("start")
1010        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1011        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1012        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1013        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1014        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1015        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1016        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1017        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1018        cycle_sql = ""
1019
1020        if cycle is not None:
1021            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1022            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1023
1024        sequence_opts = ""
1025        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1026            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1027            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1028
1029        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1030        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1031
1032        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1033
1034    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1035        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1036    ) -> str:
1037        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1038        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1039        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1040
1041    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1042        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1043    ) -> str:
1044        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1045
1046    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1047        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1048
1049    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1050        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1051
1052    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1053        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1054        if desc is not None:
1055            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1056        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1057
1058    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1060        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1061        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1062        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1063        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1064        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1065        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1066        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1067
1068    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1069        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1070
1071    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1072        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1073        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1074        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1075        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1076
1077        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1078
1079        properties_sql = ""
1080        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1081            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1082        ):
1083            properties_sql = self.sql(
1084                exp.Properties(
1085                    expressions=[
1086                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1087                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1088                    ]
1089                )
1090            )
1091
1092            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1093                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1094            elif not self.pretty:
1095                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1096                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1097
1098        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1099        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1100
1101        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1102        if expression_sql:
1103            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1104
1105            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1106                postalias_props_sql = ""
1107                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1108                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1109                        exp.Properties(
1110                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1111                        ),
1112                        wrapped=False,
1113                    )
1114                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1115                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1116
1117        postindex_props_sql = ""
1118        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1119            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1120                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1121                wrapped=False,
1122                prefix=" ",
1123            )
1124
1125        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1126        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1127        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1128
1129        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1130        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1131        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1132
1133        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1134        if clustered is None:
1135            clustered_sql = ""
1136        elif clustered:
1137            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1138        else:
1139            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1140
1141        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1142        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1143            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1144                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1145                sep=" ",
1146                prefix=" ",
1147                wrapped=False,
1148            )
1149
1150        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1151
1152        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1153        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1154            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1155                exp.Properties(
1156                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1157                ),
1158                sep=" ",
1159                prefix=" ",
1160                wrapped=False,
1161            )
1162
1163        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1164        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1165        no_schema_binding = (
1166            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1167        )
1168
1169        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1170        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1171
1172        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1173            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1174        else:
1175            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1176
1177        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1178        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1179
1180    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1181        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1182        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1183        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1184        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1185        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1186        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1187        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1188        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1189        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1190        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1191
1192        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1193        if cache is None:
1194            cache_str = ""
1195        elif cache is True:
1196            cache_str = " CACHE"
1197        else:
1198            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1199
1200        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1201        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1202
1203        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1204
1205    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1207        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1208        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1209        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1210
1211    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1212        style = expression.args.get("style")
1213        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1214        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1215        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1216        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1217        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1218
1219        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1220
1221    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1222        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1223        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1224
1225    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1226        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1227        if with_:
1228            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1229        return sql
1230
1231    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1232        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1233        recursive = (
1234            "RECURSIVE "
1235            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1236            else ""
1237        )
1238
1239        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1240
1241    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1242        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1243        if alias:
1244            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1245
1246        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1247
1248        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1249        if materialized is False:
1250            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1251        elif materialized:
1252            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1253
1254        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1255
1256    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1257        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1258        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1259        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1260
1261        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1262            columns = ""
1263            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1264
1265        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1266            alias = self._next_name()
1267
1268        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1269
1270    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1272        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1273            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1274        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1275
1276    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1278        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1279            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1280        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1281
1282    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1283        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1284        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1285            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1286        return this
1287
1288    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1289        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1290        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1291
1292        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1293            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1294            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1295        else:
1296            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1297            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1298
1299        if escape:
1300            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1301            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1302        else:
1303            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1304            escape_sql = ""
1305
1306        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1307            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1308
1309        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1310
1311    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1312        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1313        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1314
1315    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1316        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1317        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1318        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1319        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1320
1321    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1322        nested = ""
1323        values = ""
1324        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1325
1326        type_value = expression.this
1327        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1328            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1329        else:
1330            type_sql = (
1331                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1332                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1333                else type_value
1334            )
1335
1336        if interior:
1337            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1338                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1339                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1340                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1341                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1342                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1343            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1344                nested = f" {interior}"
1345            else:
1346                nested = f"({interior})"
1347
1348        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1349        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1350            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1351            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1352        ):
1353            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1354
1355        return type_sql
1356
1357    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1358        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1359        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1360        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1361        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1362
1363    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1364        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1365        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1366        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1367        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1368        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1369        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1370        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1371        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1372        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1373        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1374        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1375        if self.RETURNING_END:
1376            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1377        else:
1378            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1379        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1380
1381    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1383        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1384        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1385        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1386        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1387        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1388        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1389        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1390        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1391        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1392        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1393        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1394        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1395        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1396        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1397
1398    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1399        op_type = type(expression)
1400        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1401
1402        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1403        if (
1404            distinct is False
1405            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1406            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1407        ):
1408            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1409
1410        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1411
1412        if distinct is None:
1413            distinct = default_distinct
1414            if distinct is None:
1415                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1416
1417        if distinct is default_distinct:
1418            kind = ""
1419        else:
1420            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1421
1422        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1423        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1424
1425    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1426        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1427            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1428            order = expression.args.get("order")
1429
1430            if limit or order:
1431                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1432                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1433                )
1434
1435                if limit:
1436                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1437                if order:
1438                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1439                return self.sql(select)
1440
1441        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1442        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1443
1444        while stack:
1445            node = stack.pop()
1446
1447            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1448                stack.append(node.expression)
1449                stack.append(
1450                    self.maybe_comment(
1451                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1452                    )
1453                )
1454                stack.append(node.this)
1455            else:
1456                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1457
1458        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1459        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1460        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1461
1462    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1463        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1464        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1465        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1466        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1467        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1468            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1469        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1470        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1471
1472    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1473        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1474            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1475            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1476            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1477
1478        agg = expression.this
1479        agg_arg = agg.this
1480        cond = expression.expression.this
1481        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1482        return self.sql(agg)
1483
1484    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1485        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1486            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1487            return ""
1488
1489        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1490
1491    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1492        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1493        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1494        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1495        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1496        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1497        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1498        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1499        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1500        if include:
1501            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1502        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1503        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1504        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1505        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1506        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1507        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1508
1509        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1510
1511    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1512        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1513        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1514        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1515        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1516        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1517        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1518        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1519
1520        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1521
1522        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1523        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1524
1525    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1526        text = expression.name
1527        lower = text.lower()
1528        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1529        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1530        if (
1531            expression.quoted
1532            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1533            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1534            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1535        ):
1536            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1537        return text
1538
1539    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1540        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1541        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1542            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1543
1544        return text
1545
1546    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1547        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1548        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1549            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1550        return text
1551
1552    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1553        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1554        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1555        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1556        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1557        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1558
1559    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1560        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1561        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1562
1563    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1564        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
1565        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1566
1567    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1568        root_properties = []
1569        with_properties = []
1570
1571        for p in expression.expressions:
1572            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1573            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1574                with_properties.append(p)
1575            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1576                root_properties.append(p)
1577
1578        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1579        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1580
1581        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1582            with_props = " " + with_props
1583
1584        return root_props + with_props
1585
1586    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1587        if properties.expressions:
1588            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1589        return ""
1590
1591    def properties(
1592        self,
1593        properties: exp.Properties,
1594        prefix: str = "",
1595        sep: str = ", ",
1596        suffix: str = "",
1597        wrapped: bool = True,
1598    ) -> str:
1599        if properties.expressions:
1600            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1601            if expressions:
1602                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1603                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1604        return ""
1605
1606    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1607        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1608
1609    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1610        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1611        for p in properties.expressions:
1612            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1613            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1614                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1615            else:
1616                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1617
1618        return properties_locs
1619
1620    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1621        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1622            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1623        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1624
1625    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1626        property_cls = expression.__class__
1627        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1628            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1629
1630        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1631        if not property_name:
1632            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1633
1634        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1635
1636    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1637        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1638            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1639            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1640
1641            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1642            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1643                like = f"({like})"
1644
1645            return like
1646
1647        if expression.expressions:
1648            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1649
1650        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1651        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1652
1653    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1654        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1655        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1656        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1657
1658    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1659        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1660        local = expression.args.get("local")
1661        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1662        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1663        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1664        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1665        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1666
1667    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1668        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1669        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1670        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1671
1672    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1673        if expression.args.get("default"):
1674            property = "DEFAULT"
1675        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1676            property = "ON"
1677        else:
1678            property = "OFF"
1679        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1680
1681    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1682        if expression.args.get("no"):
1683            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1684        if expression.args.get("default"):
1685            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1686
1687        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1688        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1689
1690    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1691        default = expression.args.get("default")
1692        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1693        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1694        if default or minimum or maximum:
1695            if default:
1696                prop = "DEFAULT"
1697            elif minimum:
1698                prop = "MINIMUM"
1699            else:
1700                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1701            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1702        units = expression.args.get("units")
1703        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1704        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1705
1706    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1707        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1708        always = expression.args.get("always")
1709        default = expression.args.get("default")
1710        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1711        never = expression.args.get("never")
1712
1713        if autotemp is not None:
1714            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1715        elif always:
1716            prop = "ALWAYS"
1717        elif default:
1718            prop = "DEFAULT"
1719        elif manual:
1720            prop = "MANUAL"
1721        elif never:
1722            prop = "NEVER"
1723        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1724
1725    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1726        no = expression.args.get("no")
1727        no = " NO" if no else ""
1728        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1729        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1730        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1731        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1732        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1733
1734    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1735        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1736            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1737        if expression.this:
1738            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1740            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1741
1742        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1743        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1744        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1745
1746    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1748
1749        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1750        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1751            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1752        else:
1753            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1754
1755        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1756
1757    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1758        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1759        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1760        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1761        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1762        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1763        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1764        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1765
1766    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1767        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1768        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1769        statistics_sql = ""
1770        if statistics is not None:
1771            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1772        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1773
1774    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1776        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1777        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1778        data_consistency = (
1779            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1780        )
1781        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1782        retention_period = (
1783            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1784        )
1785
1786        if this:
1787            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1788        else:
1789            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1790
1791        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1792
1793        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1794
1795    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1796        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1797        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1798
1799        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1800            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1801        else:
1802            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1803
1804        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1805        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1806        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1807        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1808        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1809        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1810        if is_function:
1811            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1812        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1813
1814        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1815        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1816        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1817        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1818        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1819        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1820        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1821        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1822
1823        if self.RETURNING_END:
1824            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1825        else:
1826            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1827
1828        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1829        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1830        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1831        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1832
1833        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1834        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1835
1836        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1837        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1838
1839    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1840        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1841
1842    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1843        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1844        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1846        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1847        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1848
1849    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1850        return expression.name
1851
1852    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1853        return expression.name
1854
1855    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1856        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1857
1858        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1859        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1860
1861        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1862        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1863        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1864
1865        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1866        if expressions:
1867            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1868            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1869
1870        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1871        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1872
1873    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1874        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1875
1876    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1877        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1878        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1879        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1880        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1881        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1882        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1883        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1884        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1885        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1886        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1887        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1888        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1889        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1890
1891    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1892        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1893
1894    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1895        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1896        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1897        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1898        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1899
1900    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1902        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1903        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1904        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1905
1906    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1907        return ".".join(
1908            self.sql(part)
1909            for part in (
1910                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1911                expression.args.get("db"),
1912                expression.args.get("this"),
1913            )
1914            if part is not None
1915        )
1916
1917    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1918        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1919        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1920        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1921        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1922        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1923        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1924        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1925        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1926
1927        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1928        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1929            sample_pre_alias = sample
1930            sample_post_alias = ""
1931        else:
1932            sample_pre_alias = ""
1933            sample_post_alias = sample
1934
1935        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1936        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1937        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1938        joins = self.indent(
1939            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1940        )
1941        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1942
1943        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1944        if file_format:
1945            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1946            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1947            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1948
1949        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1950        if ordinality:
1951            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1952            alias = ""
1953
1954        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1955        if when:
1956            table = f"{table} {when}"
1957
1958        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1959        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1960
1961        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1962        if rows_from:
1963            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1964
1965        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1966
1967    def tablesample_sql(
1968        self,
1969        expression: exp.TableSample,
1970        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1971    ) -> str:
1972        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1973        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1974        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1975        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1976        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1977        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1978        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1979        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1980        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1981
1982        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1983        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1984            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1985
1986        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1987        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1988            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1989
1990        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1991        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1992            expr = f"({expr})"
1993
1994        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1995
1996    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1997        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1998        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1999
2000        if expression.this:
2001            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2002            if not expressions:
2003                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
2004
2005            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2006            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2007            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2008            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2009            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2010            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2011            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2012
2013        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2014        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2015
2016        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
2017
2018        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2019        if include_nulls is not None:
2020            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2021        else:
2022            nulls = ""
2023
2024        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2025        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2026        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
2027
2028    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2029        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2030        kind = expression.text("kind")
2031        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2032        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2033
2034    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2035        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2036
2037    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2039        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2040        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2041        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2042        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2043        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2044        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2045        if self.RETURNING_END:
2046            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2047        else:
2048            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2049        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2050        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2051
2052    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2053        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2054
2055        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2056        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2057            args = self.expressions(expression)
2058            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2059            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2060            values = (
2061                f"({values})"
2062                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2063                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2064                else values
2065            )
2066            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2067
2068        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2069        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2070        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2071
2072        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2073
2074        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2075            row = tup.expressions
2076
2077            if i == 0 and column_names:
2078                row = [
2079                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2080                ]
2081
2082            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2083
2084        if self.pretty:
2085            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2086            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2087            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2088            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2089            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2090
2091        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2092        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2093        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2094
2095    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2096        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2097
2098    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2099    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2100        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2101        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2102        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2103
2104    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2105        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2106
2107    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2108        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2109        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2110
2111    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2112        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2113        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2114
2115    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2116        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2117        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2118
2119    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2120        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2121        if group_by_all is True:
2122            modifier = " ALL"
2123        elif group_by_all is False:
2124            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2125        else:
2126            modifier = ""
2127
2128        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2129
2130        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2131        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2132        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2133
2134        groupings = csv(
2135            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2136            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2137            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2138            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2139            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2140        )
2141
2142        if (
2143            expression.expressions
2144            and groupings
2145            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2146        ):
2147            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2148
2149        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2150
2151    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2152        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2153        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2154
2155    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2156        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2157        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2158        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2159        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2160        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2161        return start + connect
2162
2163    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2164        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2165
2166    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2167        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2168            side = None
2169        else:
2170            side = expression.side
2171
2172        op_sql = " ".join(
2173            op
2174            for op in (
2175                expression.method,
2176                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2177                side,
2178                expression.kind,
2179                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2180            )
2181            if op
2182        )
2183        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2184        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2185        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2186        using = expression.args.get("using")
2187
2188        if not on_sql and using:
2189            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2190
2191        this = expression.this
2192        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2193
2194        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2195        if exprs:
2196            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2197
2198        if on_sql:
2199            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2200            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2201            if using:
2202                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2203            else:
2204                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2205        elif not op_sql:
2206            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2207                return f" {this_sql}"
2208
2209            return f", {this_sql}"
2210
2211        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2212            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2213
2214        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2215
2216    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2217        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2218        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2219        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2220
2221    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2222        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2223
2224        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2225        if cross_apply is True:
2226            op = "INNER JOIN "
2227        elif cross_apply is False:
2228            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2229        else:
2230            op = ""
2231
2232        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2233
2234    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2236
2237        if expression.args.get("view"):
2238            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2239            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2240            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2241            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2242            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2243            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2244
2245        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2246        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2247        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2248
2249    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2251
2252        args = [
2253            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2254            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2255            if e
2256        ]
2257
2258        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2259        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2260        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2261        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2262
2263        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2264
2265    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2267        value = expression.expression
2268        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2269        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2270        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2271        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2272
2273    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2274        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2275        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2277        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2278        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2279        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2280        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2281        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2282
2283    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2284        expressions = (
2285            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2286        )
2287        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2288        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2289
2290    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2291        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2292
2293    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2294        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2295            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2296            return ""
2297
2298        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2299        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2300        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2301        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2302
2303        if wait is not None:
2304            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2305                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2306            else:
2307                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2308
2309        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2310
2311    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2312        text = expression.this or ""
2313        if expression.is_string:
2314            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2315        return text
2316
2317    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2318        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2319            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2320            text = "".join(
2321                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2322            )
2323
2324        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2325            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2326        )
2327
2328    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2329        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2330        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2331        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2332        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2333        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2334        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2335        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2336        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2337        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2338        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2339        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2340
2341    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2342        return "NULL"
2343
2344    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2345        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2346
2347    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2348        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2349        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2350        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2351        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2352
2353    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2354        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2355        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2356        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2357        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2358        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2359        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2360        interpolated_values = [
2361            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2362            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2363            else self.sql(e, "this")
2364            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2365        ]
2366        interpolate = (
2367            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2368        )
2369        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2370
2371    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2372        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2373
2374    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2375        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2376
2377    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2378        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2379
2380    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2381        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2382        asc = not desc
2383
2384        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2385        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2386        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2387        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2388        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2389
2390        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2391
2392        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2393        nulls_sort_change = ""
2394        if nulls_first and (
2395            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2396        ):
2397            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2398        elif (
2399            nulls_last
2400            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2401            and not nulls_are_last
2402        ):
2403            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2404
2405        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2406        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2407            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2408            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2409                self.unsupported(
2410                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2411                )
2412                nulls_sort_change = ""
2413            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2414                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2415                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2416            ):
2417                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2418                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2419                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2420
2421                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2422                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2423                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2424                    self.unsupported(
2425                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2426                    )
2427                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2428            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2429                if expression.this.is_int:
2430                    self.unsupported(
2431                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2432                    )
2433                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2434                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2435                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2436                nulls_sort_change = ""
2437
2438        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2439        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2440
2441        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2442
2443    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2444        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2445        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2446
2447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2448
2449        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2450
2451    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2452        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2453        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2454        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2455        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2456        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2457        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2458        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2459        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2460        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2461        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2462        definition_sqls = [
2463            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2464            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2465        ]
2466        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2467        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2468        body = "".join(
2469            (
2470                partition,
2471                order,
2472                measures,
2473                rows,
2474                after,
2475                pattern,
2476                define,
2477            )
2478        )
2479        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2480        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2481        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2482
2483    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2484        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2485
2486        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2487            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2488        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2489            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2490
2491        return csv(
2492            *sqls,
2493            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2494            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2495            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2496            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2497            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2498            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2499            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2500            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2501            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2502            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2503            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2504            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2505            self.options_modifier(expression),
2506            sep="",
2507        )
2508
2509    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2510        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2511        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2512
2513    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2514        return ""
2515
2516    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2517        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2518    ) -> t.List[str]:
2519        return [
2520            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2521            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2522        ]
2523
2524    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2525        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2526        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2527        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2528
2529    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2530        into = expression.args.get("into")
2531        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2532            into.pop()
2533
2534        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2535        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2536        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2537        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2538
2539        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2540        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2541            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2542            limit.pop()
2543        else:
2544            top = ""
2545
2546        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2547
2548        if kind:
2549            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2550                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2551            else:
2552                if kind == "STRUCT":
2553                    expressions = self.expressions(
2554                        sqls=[
2555                            self.sql(
2556                                exp.Struct(
2557                                    expressions=[
2558                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2559                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2560                                        else e
2561                                        for e in expression.expressions
2562                                    ]
2563                                )
2564                            )
2565                        ]
2566                    )
2567                kind = ""
2568
2569        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2570        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2571
2572        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2573        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2574        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2575        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2576        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2577            expression,
2578            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2579            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2580            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2581        )
2582
2583        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2584        if expression.args.get("with"):
2585            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2586            expression.pop_comments()
2587
2588        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2589
2590        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2591            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2592                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2593            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2594                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2595            else:
2596                table_kind = ""
2597            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2598
2599        return sql
2600
2601    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2603        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2604        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2605
2606    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2607        if expression.expressions:
2608            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2609        return ""
2610
2611    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2612        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2613        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2614        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2615        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2616        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2617        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2618        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2619
2620    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2622        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2623
2624    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2625        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2626        kind = expression.text("kind")
2627        if kind:
2628            kind = f"{kind}."
2629        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2630
2631    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2632        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2633
2634    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2635        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2636        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2637        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2638        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2639            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2640
2641            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2642            expression.set("sample", None)
2643
2644        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2645        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2646        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2647
2648    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2649        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2650        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2651
2652    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2653        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2654
2655        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2656        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2657
2658        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2659            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2660                alias.append("columns", offset)
2661
2662        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2663            columns = alias.columns
2664            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2665        else:
2666            alias = self.sql(alias)
2667
2668        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2669        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2670            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2671        else:
2672            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2673                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2674            elif offset:
2675                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2676            else:
2677                suffix = alias
2678
2679        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2680
2681    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2682        return ""
2683
2684    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2685        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2686        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2687
2688    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2690        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2691        order = expression.args.get("order")
2692        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2693        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2694        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2695        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2696
2697        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2698
2699        first = expression.args.get("first")
2700        if first is None:
2701            first = ""
2702        else:
2703            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2704
2705        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2706            return f"{this} {alias}"
2707
2708        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2709        return f"{this} ({args})"
2710
2711    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2712        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2713        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2714
2715    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2716        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2717        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2718        end = (
2719            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2720            or "CURRENT ROW"
2721        )
2722        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2723
2724    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2726        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2727        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2728
2729    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2730        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2731        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2732        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2733        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2734
2735    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2736        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2737    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2738        return apply_index_offset(
2739            expression.this,
2740            expression.expressions,
2741            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2742        )
2743
2744    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2745        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2746        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2747        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2748
2749    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2750        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2751
2752    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2754        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2755            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2756                this = self.wrap(this)
2757            return f"ANY{this}"
2758        return f"ANY {this}"
2759
2760    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2761        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2762
2763    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2765        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2766
2767        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2768            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2769            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2770
2771        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2772
2773        if default:
2774            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2775
2776        statements.append("END")
2777
2778        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2779            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2780
2781        return " ".join(statements)
2782
2783    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2785        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2786        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2787
2788    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2789        order = expression.args.get("order")
2790        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2791        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2792
2793    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2794        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2795        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2796        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2797
2798    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2799        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2800
2801        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2802            func_name = "LTRIM"
2803        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2804            func_name = "RTRIM"
2805        else:
2806            func_name = "TRIM"
2807
2808        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2809
2810    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2811        args = expression.expressions
2812        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2813            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2814
2815        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2816            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2817
2818        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2819            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2820
2821        return args
2822
2823    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2824        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2825
2826        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2827        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2828            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2829
2830        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2831
2832    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2833        return self.func(
2834            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2835        )
2836
2837    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2838        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2839        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2840
2841    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2842        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2843        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2844        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2845        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2846        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2847        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2848        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2849        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2850        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}"
2851
2852    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2853        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2854        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2855        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2856        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2857
2858    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2859        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2860
2861    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2862        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2863        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2864        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2865
2866    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2867        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2868
2869    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2870        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2871
2872        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2873            path = self.escape_str(path)
2874
2875        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2876            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2877
2878        return path
2879
2880    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2881        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2882            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2883            if not callable(transform):
2884                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2885                return ""
2886
2887            return transform(self, expression)
2888
2889        if isinstance(expression, int):
2890            return str(expression)
2891
2892        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2893            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2894            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2895        else:
2896            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2897            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2898
2899        return escaped
2900
2901    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2902        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2903
2904    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2905        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2906        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2907
2908        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2909        if unique_keys is not None:
2910            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2911        else:
2912            unique_keys = ""
2913
2914        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2915        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2916        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2917        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2918
2919        return self.func(
2920            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2921            *expression.expressions,
2922            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2923        )
2924
2925    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2926        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2927
2928    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2929        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2930        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2931        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2932        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2933        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2934        return self.func(
2935            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2936        )
2937
2938    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2940        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2941        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2942        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2943        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2944        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2945        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2946        return self.func(
2947            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2948            this,
2949            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2950        )
2951
2952    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2953        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2954        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2955        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2956
2957        if nested_schema:
2958            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2959
2960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2961        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2962        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2963        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2964
2965    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2966        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2967
2968    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2970        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2971        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2972        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2973        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2974        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2975        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2976        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2977        return self.func(
2978            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2979        )
2980
2981    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2983        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2984        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2985        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2986        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2987        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2988
2989    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2991        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2992        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2993        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2994        with_ = (
2995            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2996            if expressions
2997            else ""
2998        )
2999        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
3000
3001    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
3002        query = expression.args.get("query")
3003        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
3004        field = expression.args.get("field")
3005        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3006
3007        if query:
3008            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3009        elif unnest:
3010            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3011        elif field:
3012            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3013        else:
3014            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3015
3016        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3017
3018    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3019        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3020
3021    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3022        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3023        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3024            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3025        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3026
3027        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3028            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3029            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3030
3031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3032        if this:
3033            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3034            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3035
3036        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3037
3038    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3039        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3040
3041    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3042        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3043        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3044        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3045        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3046        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3047        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3048
3049    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3050        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3051        parent = expression.parent
3052        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3053        return self.func(
3054            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3055        )
3056
3057    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3058        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3059        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3060
3061    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3062        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3063        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3064        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3065        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3066
3067    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3068        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3069
3070    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3071        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3072        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3073        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3074
3075    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3076        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3077
3078        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3079        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3080
3081        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3082            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3083        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3084            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3085
3086        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3087
3088    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3090
3091    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3093        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3094        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3095
3096    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3098        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3099        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3100
3101    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3102        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3103        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3104        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3105
3106    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3107        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3108
3109    def and_sql(
3110        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3111    ) -> str:
3112        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3113
3114    def or_sql(
3115        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3116    ) -> str:
3117        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3118
3119    def xor_sql(
3120        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3121    ) -> str:
3122        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3123
3124    def connector_sql(
3125        self,
3126        expression: exp.Connector,
3127        op: str,
3128        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3129    ) -> str:
3130        if stack is not None:
3131            if expression.expressions:
3132                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3133            else:
3134                stack.append(expression.right)
3135                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3136                    for comment in expression.comments:
3137                        if comment:
3138                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3139                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3140            return op
3141
3142        stack = [expression]
3143        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3144        ops = set()
3145
3146        while stack:
3147            node = stack.pop()
3148            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3149                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3150            else:
3151                sql = self.sql(node)
3152                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3153                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3154                else:
3155                    sqls.append(sql)
3156
3157        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3158        return sep.join(sqls)
3159
3160    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3161        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3162
3163    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3164        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3165
3166    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3167        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3168
3169    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3170        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3171
3172    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3173        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3174
3175    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3176        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3177
3178    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3179        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3180        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3181        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3182        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3183        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3184        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3185        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3186
3187    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3188        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3189        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3190
3191    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3192        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3193            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3194        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3195
3196    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3197        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3198
3199    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3200        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3201        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3202        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3203        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3204        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3205        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3206
3207    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3208        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3209        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3210        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3211        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3212        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3213        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3214        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3215        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3216        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3217
3218    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3219        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3220        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3221        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3222        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3223
3224        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3225            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3226
3227        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3228
3229    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3230        return "BEGIN"
3231
3232    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3233        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3234        if chain is not None:
3235            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3236
3237        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3238
3239    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3240        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3241        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3242        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3243
3244    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3246
3247        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3248        if dtype:
3249            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3250            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3251            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3252            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3253            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3254
3255        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3256        if default:
3257            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3258
3259        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3260        if comment:
3261            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3262
3263        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3264        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3265
3266        if not drop and not allow_null:
3267            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3268
3269        if allow_null is not None:
3270            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3271            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3272
3273        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3274
3275    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3277        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3278            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3279        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3280
3281    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3282        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3283        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3284        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3285        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3286        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3287
3288    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3289        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3290            # Remove db from tables
3291            expression = expression.transform(
3292                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3293            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3295        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3296
3297    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3298        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3299        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3300        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3301        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3302
3303    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3304        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3305        return f"SET {exprs}"
3306
3307    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3308        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3309
3310        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3311            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3312        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3313            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3314        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3315            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3316        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3317            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3318        else:
3319            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3320
3321        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3322        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3323        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3324        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3325        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3326        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3327        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3328        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3329
3330        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3331
3332    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3333        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3334            return self.expressions(
3335                expression,
3336                key="actions",
3337                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3338                skip_first=True,
3339            )
3340        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3341
3342    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3343        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3344        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3345        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3346
3347    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3348        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3349
3350    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3351        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3352
3353        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3354            case = exp.case()
3355            for arg in expression.expressions:
3356                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3357            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3358
3359        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3360
3361        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3362        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3363        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3364
3365    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3366        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3367
3368    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3369        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3370
3371    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3372        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3373        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3374        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3375        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3376
3377    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3378        return self.sql(
3379            exp.Cast(
3380                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3381                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3382            )
3383        )
3384
3385    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3386        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3387            return self.func(
3388                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3389            )
3390        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3391
3392    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3393        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3394
3395        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3396            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3397
3398        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3399            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3400                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3401
3402        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3403            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3404                return self.sql(
3405                    exp.cast(
3406                        l / r,
3407                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3408                    )
3409                )
3410
3411        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3412
3413    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3414        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3415
3416    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3417        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3418
3419    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3420        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3421
3422    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3423        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3424
3425    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3426        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3427
3428    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3429        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3430
3431    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3432        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3433
3434    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3435        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3436
3437    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3438        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3439
3440    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3441        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3442
3443    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3444        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3445
3446    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3447        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3448            return self.sql(
3449                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3450            )
3451        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3452
3453    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3454        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3455
3456    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3457        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3458
3459    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3460        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3461
3462    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3463        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3464
3465    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3466        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3467
3468    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3469        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3470
3471    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3472        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3473
3474    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3475        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3476
3477    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3478        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3479
3480    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3481        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3482
3483    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3484        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3485
3486    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3487        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3488
3489    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3490        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3491
3492    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3493        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3494            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3495            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3496
3497        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3498
3499    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3500        this = expression.this
3501        expr = expression.expression
3502
3503        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3504            this, expr = expr, this
3505        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3506            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3507                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3508
3509            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3510
3511        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3512
3513    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3514        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3515        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3517        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3518        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3519
3520    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3521        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3522        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3523        binary_type = type(expression)
3524
3525        while stack:
3526            node = stack.pop()
3527
3528            if type(node) is binary_type:
3529                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3530                if op_func:
3531                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3532
3533                stack.append(node.right)
3534                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3535                stack.append(node.left)
3536            else:
3537                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3538
3539        return "".join(sqls)
3540
3541    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
3542        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
3543        if to_clause:
3544            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
3545
3546        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3547
3548    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3549        args = []
3550
3551        for key in expression.arg_types:
3552            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3553
3554            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3555                for value in arg_value:
3556                    args.append(value)
3557            elif arg_value is not None:
3558                args.append(arg_value)
3559
3560        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3561            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3562        else:
3563            name = expression.sql_name()
3564
3565        return self.func(name, *args)
3566
3567    def func(
3568        self,
3569        name: str,
3570        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3571        prefix: str = "(",
3572        suffix: str = ")",
3573        normalize: bool = True,
3574    ) -> str:
3575        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3576        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3577
3578    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3579        arg_sqls = tuple(
3580            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3581        )
3582        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3583            return self.indent(
3584                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3585            )
3586        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3587
3588    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3589        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3590
3591    def format_time(
3592        self,
3593        expression: exp.Expression,
3594        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3595        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3596    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3597        return format_time(
3598            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3599            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3600            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3601        )
3602
3603    def expressions(
3604        self,
3605        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3606        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3607        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3608        flat: bool = False,
3609        indent: bool = True,
3610        skip_first: bool = False,
3611        skip_last: bool = False,
3612        sep: str = ", ",
3613        prefix: str = "",
3614        dynamic: bool = False,
3615        new_line: bool = False,
3616    ) -> str:
3617        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3618
3619        if not expressions:
3620            return ""
3621
3622        if flat:
3623            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3624
3625        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3626        result_sqls = []
3627
3628        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3629            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3630            if not sql:
3631                continue
3632
3633            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3634
3635            if self.pretty:
3636                if self.leading_comma:
3637                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3638                else:
3639                    result_sqls.append(
3640                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3641                    )
3642            else:
3643                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3644
3645        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3646            if new_line:
3647                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3648                result_sqls.append("")
3649            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3650        else:
3651            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3652
3653        return (
3654            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3655            if indent
3656            else result_sql
3657        )
3658
3659    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3660        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3661        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3662        if flat:
3663            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3664        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3665
3666    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3667        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3668        if not property_name:
3669            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3670        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3671
3672    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3673        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3674
3675    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3676        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3677
3678    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3680        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3681        expressions = (
3682            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3683        )
3684        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3685
3686    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3688        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3689        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3690
3691    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3692        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3693
3694    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3695        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3696        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3697        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3698        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3699
3700        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3701        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3702            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3703            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3704            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3705            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3706        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3707            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3708                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3709            else:
3710                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3711        else:
3712            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3713        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3714
3715    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3716        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3717
3718    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3719        table = expression.this
3720        table_alias = ""
3721
3722        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3723        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3724            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3725            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3726
3727        this = self.sql(table)
3728        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3729        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3730        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3731
3732        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3733        if returning:
3734            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3735
3736        sep = self.sep()
3737
3738        return self.prepend_ctes(
3739            expression,
3740            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3741        )
3742
3743    @unsupported_args("format")
3744    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3745        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3746
3747    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3748        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3749            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3750            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3751
3752        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3753        if not fmt:
3754            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3755            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3756
3757        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3758
3759    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3761        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3762        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3763        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3764        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3765
3766    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3768        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3769        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3770        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3771
3772    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3773        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3774
3775    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3776        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3777
3778    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3779    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3780        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3781
3782    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3783    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3784        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3785        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3786        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3787        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3788        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3789        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3790        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3791
3792    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3793        return ""
3794
3795    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3796        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3797        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3798        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3799        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3800        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3801
3802    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3804        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3805
3806        if having:
3807            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3808
3809        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3810
3811    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3812        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3813        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3814        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3815        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3816        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3817        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3818        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3819        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3820        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3821        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3822        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3823        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3824        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3825
3826    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3827        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3828        if key_block_size:
3829            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3830
3831        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3832        if using:
3833            return f"USING {using}"
3834
3835        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3836        if parser:
3837            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3838
3839        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3840        if comment:
3841            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3842
3843        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3844        if visible is not None:
3845            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3846
3847        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3848        if engine_attr:
3849            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3850
3851        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3852        if secondary_engine_attr:
3853            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3854
3855        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3856        return ""
3857
3858    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3859        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3860        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3861
3862    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3863        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3864        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3866        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3867        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3868        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3869        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3870        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3871        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3872        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3873        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3874
3875    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3876        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3877            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3878
3879        case = exp.Case().when(
3880            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3881            expression.args["true"],
3882            copy=False,
3883        )
3884        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3885        if else_cond:
3886            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3887
3888        return self.sql(case)
3889
3890    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3891        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3892        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3893        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3894        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3895        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3896        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3897
3898    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3899        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3900
3901    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3902        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3903
3904    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3905        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3906        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3907        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3908        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3909        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3910        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3911
3912    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3914        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3915        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3916
3917    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3919        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3920        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3921
3922    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3923        arg = expression.this
3924        if not arg.type:
3925            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3926
3927            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3928
3929        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3930            return self.sql(arg)
3931
3932        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3933        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3934
3935    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3936        this = expression.this
3937        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3938            return self.sql(this)
3939
3940        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3941
3942    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3943        this = expression.this
3944        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3945            return self.sql(this)
3946
3947        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
3948
3949    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
3950        this = expression.this
3951        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
3952            return self.sql(this)
3953
3954        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
3955
3956    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3957        this = expression.this
3958        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3959
3960        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3961            return self.sql(
3962                exp.cast(
3963                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3964                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3965                )
3966            )
3967
3968        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3969            return self.sql(this)
3970
3971        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3972
3973    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3974        return self.sql(
3975            exp.func(
3976                "DATEDIFF",
3977                expression.this,
3978                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3979                "day",
3980            )
3981        )
3982
3983    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3984        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3985            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3986
3987        unit = expression.text("unit")
3988        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3989            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3990
3991        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3992
3993    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3994        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3995
3996        return self.func(
3997            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3998        )
3999
4000    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
4001        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
4002            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
4003            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
4004            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
4005            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
4006
4007        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
4008
4009        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
4010        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
4011            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4012
4013        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4014
4015    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4016        expression.set(
4017            "expressions",
4018            [
4019                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4020                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4021                else e
4022                for e in expression.expressions
4023            ],
4024        )
4025
4026        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4027
4028    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4029        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4030        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4031
4032        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4033
4034    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4035        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4036        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4037
4038        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4039
4040        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4041        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4042
4043        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4044        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4045
4046        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4047        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4048
4049        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4050        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4051
4052        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4053
4054    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4055    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4056    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4057        to = expression.this
4058        value = expression.expression
4059        style = expression.args.get("style")
4060        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4061        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4062
4063        if not to or not value:
4064            return ""
4065
4066        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4067        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4068            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4069
4070        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4071        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4072
4073        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4074        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4075            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4076
4077            style_value = style.name
4078            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4079            if not converted_style:
4080                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4081
4082            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4083
4084            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4085                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4086            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4087                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4088            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4089                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4090            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4091                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4092
4093        if not transformed:
4094            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4095
4096        return self.sql(transformed)
4097
4098    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4099        this = expression.this
4100        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4101            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4102            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4103
4104        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4105            return f".{this}"
4106
4107        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4108        return (
4109            f"[{this}]"
4110            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4111            else f".{this}"
4112        )
4113
4114    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4115        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4116        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4117
4118    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4119        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4120            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4121
4122            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4123
4124        return expression
4125
4126    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4127        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4128            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4129            mods = sorted(
4130                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4131                key=lambda x: 0
4132                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4133                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4134            )
4135
4136            if mods:
4137                mod = mods[0]
4138                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4139                this.meta["inline"] = True
4140                mod.this.replace(this)
4141                return self.sql(expression.this)
4142
4143            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4144
4145            if agg_func:
4146                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4147
4148        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4149
4150    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4151        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4152        if self.pretty:
4153            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4154        return string
4155
4156    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4157        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4158
4159        if expression.expressions:
4160            upper = option.upper()
4161
4162            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4163            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4164
4165            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4166            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4167            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4168            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4169
4170        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4171
4172        if not value:
4173            return option
4174
4175        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4176
4177        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4178
4179    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4180        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4181        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4182            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4183            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4184            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4185        else:
4186            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4187            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4188            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4189
4190        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4191        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4192
4193        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4194        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4195
4196        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4197        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4198
4199        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4200        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4201
4202        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4203
4204    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4205        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4206        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4207
4208        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4209        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4210        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4211        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4212
4213        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4214        params = self.expressions(
4215            expression,
4216            key="params",
4217            sep=sep,
4218            new_line=True,
4219            skip_last=True,
4220            skip_first=True,
4221            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4222        )
4223
4224        if params:
4225            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4226                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4227            elif not self.pretty:
4228                params = f" {params}"
4229
4230        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4231
4232    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4233        return ""
4234
4235    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4236        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4237        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4238        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4239        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4240        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4241
4242        if filter_col or retention_period:
4243            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4244
4245        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4246
4247    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4248        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4249    ) -> str:
4250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4251        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4252        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4253        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4254
4255    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4256        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4257        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4258        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4259
4260    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4261        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4262
4263    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4265        expr = expression.expression
4266
4267        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4268            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4269            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4270        else:
4271            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4272
4273        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4274
4275    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4276        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4277            return self.sql(expression.this)
4278
4279        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4280
4281    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4282        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4283        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4284
4285        if lower and upper:
4286            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4287        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4288
4289    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4290        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4291        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4292        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4293        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4294        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4295        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4296
4297        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4298
4299    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4300        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4301
4302        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4303        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4304            fill_pattern = "' '"
4305
4306        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4307
4308    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4309        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4310        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4311
4312    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4313        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4314
4315        parent = expression.parent
4316        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4317            parent = parent.parent
4318
4319        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4320            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4321
4322        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4323            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4324
4325        return self.sql(generate_series)
4326
4327    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4328        exprs = expression.expressions
4329        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4330            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4331        else:
4332            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4333
4334        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4335
4336    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4337        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4338            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4339
4340        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4341        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4342        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4343
4344        if source_tz and timestamp:
4345            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4346                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4347            )
4348
4349        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4350
4351        return self.sql(expr)
4352
4353    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4355        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4356
4357        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4358
4359        if _with is None:
4360            with_sql = ""
4361        elif not _with:
4362            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4363        else:
4364            with_sql = " WITH"
4365
4366        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4367
4368        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4369
4370    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4371        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4372            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4373
4374        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4375        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4376        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4377
4378        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4379        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4380
4381        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4382
4383    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4384        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4385        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4386        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4387        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4388        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4389
4390    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4391        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4392        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4393        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4394        return res
4395
4396    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4397        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4398        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4399        empty = (
4400            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4401            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4402            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4403        )
4404
4405        error = expression.args.get("error")
4406        error = (
4407            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4408            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4409            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4410        )
4411
4412        if error and empty:
4413            error = (
4414                f"{empty} {error}"
4415                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4416                else f"{error} {empty}"
4417            )
4418            empty = ""
4419
4420        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4421
4422        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4423
4424    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4426        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4427
4428        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4429        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4430
4431        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4432        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4433
4434        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4435
4436        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4437
4438    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4439        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4440
4441        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4442        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4443        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4444            parent = expression.parent
4445            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4446                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4447                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4448            else:
4449                this = expression.this
4450                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4451                if this.find(exp.Column):
4452                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4453                    this_sql = (
4454                        self.expressions(this)
4455                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4456                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4457                    )
4458
4459                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4460
4461        return array_agg
4462
4463    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4464        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4465        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4466
4467        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4468
4469    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4470        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4471
4472        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4473        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4474
4475        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4476        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4477
4478        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4479
4480        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4481
4482        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4483
4484    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4486        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4487        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4488
4489        return f"{this}{columns}"
4490
4491    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4492        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4493
4494        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4495        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4496
4497        return f"{kind}{this}"
4498
4499    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4500        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4501        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4502            func = f"*{func}"
4503
4504        return func
4505
4506    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4507        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4508        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4509        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4510        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4511        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4512
4513        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4514
4515    @unsupported_args("format")
4516    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4517        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4518
4519    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4520        this = expression.this
4521        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4522
4523        if zone:
4524            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4525            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4526            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4527            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4528                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4529            )
4530
4531        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4532
4533    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4534        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4535            return self.sql(
4536                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4537            )
4538
4539        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4540
4541    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4542        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4543        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4544        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4545        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4546
4547    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4548        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4549            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4550
4551        start_ts = exp.cast(
4552            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4553        )
4554
4555        return self.sql(
4556            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4557        )
4558
4559    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4560        dim = expression.expression
4561
4562        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4563        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4564            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4565                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4566            dim = None
4567
4568        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4569        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4570            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4571
4572        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4573
4574    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4576        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4577        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4578        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4579
4580        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4581
4582    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4584        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4585
4586        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4587
4588    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4590        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4591        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4592        return f"{this}{value}"
4593
4594    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4595        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4596        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4597            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4598
4599        return self.func(
4600            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4601            this_sql,
4602            expression.args.get("time"),
4603            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4604            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4605        )
4606
4607    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4608        return (
4609            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4610        )
4611
4612    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4613        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4614        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4615
4616        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4617        if properties:
4618            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4619
4620        return encode
4621
4622    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4623        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4624        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4625
4626        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4627        if column_def:
4628            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4629
4630        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4631        if alias:
4632            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4633
4634        return include
4635
4636    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4637        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4638        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4639
4640    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4641        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4642        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4643        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4644
4645    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4646        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4647    ) -> str:
4648        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4649        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4650
4651        every = expression.args["every"]
4652        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4653            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4654
4655        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4656
4657    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4658        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4659        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4660
4661        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4662
4663    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
4664        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4665        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
4666        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
4667
4668    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
4669        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4670        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4671        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4672        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4673        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4674        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4675        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
4676        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
4677
4678    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
4679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4680        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4681        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4682        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4683        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
4684        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
4685        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
4686
4687    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
4688        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4689        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4690        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
4691
4692    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
4693        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4694        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
4695
4696    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
4697        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4699        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4700        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4701        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
4702
4703    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
4704        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4705        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4706        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4707        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4709        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4710        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
4711        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
4712        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
4713        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
4714        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4715        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4716        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4717        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4718        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
4719
4720    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4721        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4722        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4723        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4724        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4725        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4726        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4727        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"