sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 118        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 119        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 122        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 123        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 128        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 132        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 135        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 136        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 138        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 139        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 140        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 141        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 142        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 143        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 144        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 145        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 146        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 150        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 151        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 152        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 154        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 155        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 156        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 157        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 158        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 159        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 160        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 161        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 162        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 164        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 168        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 169        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 170        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 172            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 173        ),
 174        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 176        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 177        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 178        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 179        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 180        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 181        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 182        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 183        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 184        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 185        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 187        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 188        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 189        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 190        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 191        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 193        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 194        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 195        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 196        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 197        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 198        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 199        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 200        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 201        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 202        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 203        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 205        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 206        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 207    }
 208
 209    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 210    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 211    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 212    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 213
 214    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 215    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 216    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 217
 218    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 219    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 220
 221    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 222    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 223
 224    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 225    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 226
 227    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 228    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 229
 230    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 231    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 232
 233    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 234    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 235
 236    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 237    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 238
 239    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 240    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 241
 242    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 243    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 244
 245    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 246    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 247
 248    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 249    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 250
 251    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 252    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 253
 254    # Whether join hints should be generated
 255    JOIN_HINTS = True
 256
 257    # Whether table hints should be generated
 258    TABLE_HINTS = True
 259
 260    # Whether query hints should be generated
 261    QUERY_HINTS = True
 262
 263    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 264    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 265
 266    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 267    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 268
 269    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 270    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 271
 272    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 273    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 274
 275    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 276    RETURNING_END = True
 277
 278    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 279    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 280
 281    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 282    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 283
 284    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 285    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 286
 287    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 288    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 289
 290    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 291    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 292    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 293    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 294
 295    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 296    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 297
 298    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 299    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 300
 301    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 302    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 303
 304    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 305    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 306
 307    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 308    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 309
 310    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 311    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 312
 313    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 314    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 315
 316    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 317    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 318
 319    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 320    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 321
 322    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 323    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 324
 325    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 326    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 327
 328    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 329    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 330
 331    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 332    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 333
 334    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 335    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 336
 337    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 338    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 339
 340    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 341    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 342
 343    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 344    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 345
 346    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 347    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 348
 349    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 350    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 351
 352    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 353    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 354
 355    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 356    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 357
 358    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 359    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 360
 361    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 362    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 363
 364    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 365    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 366
 367    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 368    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 369
 370    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 371    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 372    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 373
 374    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 375    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 376
 377    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 378    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 379
 380    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 381    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 382
 383    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 384    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 385
 386    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 387    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 388
 389    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 390    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 391
 392    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 393    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 394    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 395    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 396
 397    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 398    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 399
 400    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 401    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 402
 403    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 404    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 405
 406    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 407    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 408
 409    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 410    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 411
 412    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 413    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 414
 415    # The HEX function name
 416    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 417
 418    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 419    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 420
 421    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 422    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 423
 424    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 425    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 426
 427    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 428    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 429
 430    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 431    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 432
 433    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 434    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 435
 436    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 437    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 438
 439    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 440        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 441        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 442        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 443        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 446        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 447        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 448        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 449        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 450    }
 451
 452    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 453        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 454        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 455        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 456        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 457        "DAYS": "DAY",
 458        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 459        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 460        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 461        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 462    }
 463
 464    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 465        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 466        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 467        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 468        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 469            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 470            if e.args.get("windows")
 471            else ""
 472        ),
 473        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 474    }
 475
 476    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 477
 478    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 479
 480    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 481    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 482
 483    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 484        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 486        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 490        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 492        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 499        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 501        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 504        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 510        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 511        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 512        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 513        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 514        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 515        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 517        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 519        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 520        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 525        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 526        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 527        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 528        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 529        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 531        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 534        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 537        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 545        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 550        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 552        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 553        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 556        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 558        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 560        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 561        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 562        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 565        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 567        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 568        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 569        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 572    }
 573
 574    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 575    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 576
 577    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 578    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 579        exp.Command,
 580        exp.Create,
 581        exp.Delete,
 582        exp.Drop,
 583        exp.From,
 584        exp.Insert,
 585        exp.Join,
 586        exp.MultitableInserts,
 587        exp.Select,
 588        exp.SetOperation,
 589        exp.Update,
 590        exp.Where,
 591        exp.With,
 592    )
 593
 594    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 595    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 596        exp.Binary,
 597        exp.SetOperation,
 598    )
 599
 600    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 601    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 602        exp.Column,
 603        exp.Literal,
 604        exp.Neg,
 605        exp.Paren,
 606    )
 607
 608    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 609        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 610        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 611        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 612        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 613    }
 614
 615    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 616    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 617
 618    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 619
 620    __slots__ = (
 621        "pretty",
 622        "identify",
 623        "normalize",
 624        "pad",
 625        "_indent",
 626        "normalize_functions",
 627        "unsupported_level",
 628        "max_unsupported",
 629        "leading_comma",
 630        "max_text_width",
 631        "comments",
 632        "dialect",
 633        "unsupported_messages",
 634        "_escaped_quote_end",
 635        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 636        "_next_name",
 637        "_identifier_start",
 638        "_identifier_end",
 639    )
 640
 641    def __init__(
 642        self,
 643        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 644        identify: str | bool = False,
 645        normalize: bool = False,
 646        pad: int = 2,
 647        indent: int = 2,
 648        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 649        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 650        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 651        leading_comma: bool = False,
 652        max_text_width: int = 80,
 653        comments: bool = True,
 654        dialect: DialectType = None,
 655    ):
 656        import sqlglot
 657        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 658
 659        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 660        self.identify = identify
 661        self.normalize = normalize
 662        self.pad = pad
 663        self._indent = indent
 664        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 665        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 666        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 667        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 668        self.comments = comments
 669        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 670
 671        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 672        self.normalize_functions = (
 673            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 674        )
 675
 676        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 677        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 678            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 679        )
 680        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 681
 682        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 683
 684        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 685        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 686
 687    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 688        """
 689        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 690
 691        Args:
 692            expression: The syntax tree.
 693            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 694                it is safer to copy.
 695
 696        Returns:
 697            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 698        """
 699        if copy:
 700            expression = expression.copy()
 701
 702        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 703
 704        self.unsupported_messages = []
 705        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 706
 707        if self.pretty:
 708            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 709
 710        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 711            return sql
 712
 713        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 714            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 715                logger.warning(msg)
 716        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 717            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 718
 719        return sql
 720
 721    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 722        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 723        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 724
 725        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 726            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 727
 728            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 729
 730        return expression
 731
 732    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 733        if (
 734            not expression.parent
 735            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 736            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 737        ):
 738            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 739
 740            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 741        return expression
 742
 743    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 744        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 745            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 746        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 747
 748    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 749        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 750
 751    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 752        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 753
 754    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 755        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 756        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 757        return comment
 758
 759    def maybe_comment(
 760        self,
 761        sql: str,
 762        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 763        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 764        separated: bool = False,
 765    ) -> str:
 766        comments = (
 767            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 768            if self.comments
 769            else None
 770        )
 771
 772        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 773            return sql
 774
 775        comments_sql = " ".join(
 776            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 777        )
 778
 779        if not comments_sql:
 780            return sql
 781
 782        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 783
 784        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 785            return (
 786                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 787                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 788                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 789            )
 790
 791        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 792
 793    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 794        this_sql = (
 795            self.sql(expression)
 796            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 797            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 798        )
 799        if not this_sql:
 800            return "()"
 801
 802        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 803        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 804
 805    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 806        original = self.identify
 807        self.identify = False
 808        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 809        self.identify = original
 810        return result
 811
 812    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 813        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 814            return name.upper()
 815        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 816            return name.lower()
 817        return name
 818
 819    def indent(
 820        self,
 821        sql: str,
 822        level: int = 0,
 823        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 824        skip_first: bool = False,
 825        skip_last: bool = False,
 826    ) -> str:
 827        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 828            return sql
 829
 830        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 831        lines = sql.split("\n")
 832
 833        return "\n".join(
 834            (
 835                line
 836                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 837                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 838            )
 839            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 840        )
 841
 842    def sql(
 843        self,
 844        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 845        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 846        comment: bool = True,
 847    ) -> str:
 848        if not expression:
 849            return ""
 850
 851        if isinstance(expression, str):
 852            return expression
 853
 854        if key:
 855            value = expression.args.get(key)
 856            if value:
 857                return self.sql(value)
 858            return ""
 859
 860        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 861
 862        if callable(transform):
 863            sql = transform(self, expression)
 864        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 865            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 866
 867            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 868                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 869            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 870                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 871            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 872                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 873            else:
 874                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 875        else:
 876            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 877
 878        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 879
 880    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 881        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 882        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 883        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 884
 885    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 886        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 887        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 888        options = expression.args.get("options")
 889        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 890        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 891        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 892        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 893        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 894
 895    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 896        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 897            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 898        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 899        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 900
 901    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 902        return ".".join(
 903            self.sql(part)
 904            for part in (
 905                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 906                expression.args.get("db"),
 907                expression.args.get("table"),
 908                expression.args.get("this"),
 909            )
 910            if part
 911        )
 912
 913    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 914        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 915
 916        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 917            join_mark = ""
 918            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 919
 920        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 921
 922    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 924        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 925        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 926        return f"{position}{this}"
 927
 928    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 929        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 930        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 931        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 932        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 933        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 934        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 935        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 936        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 937
 938        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 939            kind = ""
 940
 941        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 942
 943    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 945        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 946        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 947
 948    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 950        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 951            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 952        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 953            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 954        else:
 955            persisted = ""
 956        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 957
 958    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 959        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 960
 961    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 962        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 963            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 964        else:
 965            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 966
 967        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 968
 969    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 970        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 971    ) -> str:
 972        this = ""
 973        if expression.this is not None:
 974            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 975            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 976
 977        start = expression.args.get("start")
 978        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 979        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 980        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 981        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 982        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 983        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 984        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 985        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 986        cycle_sql = ""
 987
 988        if cycle is not None:
 989            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 990            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 991
 992        sequence_opts = ""
 993        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 994            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 995            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 996
 997        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 998        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 999
1000        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1001
1002    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1003        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1004    ) -> str:
1005        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1006        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1007        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1008
1009    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1010        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1011    ) -> str:
1012        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1013
1014    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1015        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1016
1017    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1018        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1019
1020    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1021        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1022        if desc is not None:
1023            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1024        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1025
1026    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1028        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1029        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1030        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1031        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1032        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1033        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1034        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1035
1036    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1037        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1038
1039    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1040        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1041        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1042        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1043        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1044
1045        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1046
1047        properties_sql = ""
1048        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1049            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1050        ):
1051            properties_sql = self.sql(
1052                exp.Properties(
1053                    expressions=[
1054                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1055                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1056                    ]
1057                )
1058            )
1059
1060            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1061                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1062            elif not self.pretty:
1063                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1064                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1065
1066        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1067        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1068
1069        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1070        if expression_sql:
1071            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1072
1073            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1074                postalias_props_sql = ""
1075                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1076                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1077                        exp.Properties(
1078                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1079                        ),
1080                        wrapped=False,
1081                    )
1082                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1083                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1084
1085        postindex_props_sql = ""
1086        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1087            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1088                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1089                wrapped=False,
1090                prefix=" ",
1091            )
1092
1093        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1094        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1095        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1096
1097        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1098        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1099        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1100
1101        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1102        if clustered is None:
1103            clustered_sql = ""
1104        elif clustered:
1105            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1106        else:
1107            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1108
1109        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1110        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1111            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1112                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1113                sep=" ",
1114                prefix=" ",
1115                wrapped=False,
1116            )
1117
1118        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1119
1120        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1121        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1122            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1123                exp.Properties(
1124                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1125                ),
1126                sep=" ",
1127                prefix=" ",
1128                wrapped=False,
1129            )
1130
1131        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1132        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1133        no_schema_binding = (
1134            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1135        )
1136
1137        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1138        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1139
1140        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1141        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1142
1143    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1144        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1145        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1146        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1147        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1148        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1149        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1150        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1151        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1152        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1153        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1154
1155        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1156        if cache is None:
1157            cache_str = ""
1158        elif cache is True:
1159            cache_str = " CACHE"
1160        else:
1161            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1162
1163        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1164        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1165
1166        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1167
1168    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1170        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1171        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1172        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1173
1174    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1175        style = expression.args.get("style")
1176        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1177        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1178        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1179        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1180
1181    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1182        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1183        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1184
1185    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1186        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1187        if with_:
1188            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1189        return sql
1190
1191    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1192        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1193        recursive = (
1194            "RECURSIVE "
1195            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1196            else ""
1197        )
1198
1199        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1200
1201    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1202        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1203        if alias:
1204            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1205
1206        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1207
1208        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1209        if materialized is False:
1210            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1211        elif materialized:
1212            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1213
1214        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1215
1216    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1217        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1218        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1219        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1220
1221        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1222            columns = ""
1223            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1224
1225        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1226            alias = self._next_name()
1227
1228        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1229
1230    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1232        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1233            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1234        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1235
1236    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1238        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1239            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1240        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1241
1242    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1244        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1245            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1246        return this
1247
1248    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1250        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1251
1252        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1253            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1254            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1255        else:
1256            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1257            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1258
1259        if escape:
1260            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1261            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1262        else:
1263            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1264            escape_sql = ""
1265
1266        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1267            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1268
1269        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1270
1271    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1272        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1273        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1274
1275    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1277        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1278        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1279        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1280
1281    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1282        nested = ""
1283        values = ""
1284        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1285
1286        type_value = expression.this
1287        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1288            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1289        else:
1290            type_sql = (
1291                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1292                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1293                else type_value
1294            )
1295
1296        if interior:
1297            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1298                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1299                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1300                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1301                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1302                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1303            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1304                nested = f" {interior}"
1305            else:
1306                nested = f"({interior})"
1307
1308        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1309        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1310            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1311            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1312        ):
1313            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1314
1315        return type_sql
1316
1317    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1318        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1319        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1320        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1321        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1322
1323    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1325        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1326        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1327        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1328        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1329        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1330        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1331        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1332        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1333        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1334        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1335        if self.RETURNING_END:
1336            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1337        else:
1338            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1339        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1340
1341    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1343        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1344        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1345        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1346        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1347        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1348        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1349        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1350        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1351        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1352        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1353        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1354        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1355        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1356        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1357
1358    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1359        op_type = type(expression)
1360        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1361
1362        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1363        if (
1364            distinct is False
1365            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1366            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1367        ):
1368            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1369
1370        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1371
1372        if distinct is None:
1373            distinct = default_distinct
1374            if distinct is None:
1375                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1376
1377        if distinct is default_distinct:
1378            kind = ""
1379        else:
1380            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1381
1382        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1383        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1384
1385    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1386        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1387            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1388            order = expression.args.get("order")
1389
1390            if limit or order:
1391                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1392                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1393                )
1394
1395                if limit:
1396                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1397                if order:
1398                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1399                return self.sql(select)
1400
1401        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1402        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1403
1404        while stack:
1405            node = stack.pop()
1406
1407            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1408                stack.append(node.expression)
1409                stack.append(
1410                    self.maybe_comment(
1411                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1412                    )
1413                )
1414                stack.append(node.this)
1415            else:
1416                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1417
1418        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1419        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1420        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1421
1422    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1423        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1424        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1425        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1426        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1427        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1428            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1429        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1430        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1431
1432    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1433        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1434            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1435            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1436            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1437
1438        agg = expression.this
1439        agg_arg = agg.this
1440        cond = expression.expression.this
1441        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1442        return self.sql(agg)
1443
1444    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1445        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1446            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1447            return ""
1448
1449        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1450
1451    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1452        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1453        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1454        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1455        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1456        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1457        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1458        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1459        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1460        if include:
1461            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1462        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1463        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1464        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1465        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1466        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1467        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1468
1469        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1470
1471    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1472        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1473        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1474        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1475        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1476        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1477        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1478        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1479
1480        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1481
1482        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1483        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1484
1485    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1486        text = expression.name
1487        lower = text.lower()
1488        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1489        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1490        if (
1491            expression.quoted
1492            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1493            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1494            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1495        ):
1496            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1497        return text
1498
1499    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1500        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1501        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1502            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1503
1504        return text
1505
1506    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1507        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1508        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1509            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1510        return text
1511
1512    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1513        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1514        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1515        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1516        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1517        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1518
1519    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1520        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1521        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1522
1523    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1524        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1525
1526    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1527        root_properties = []
1528        with_properties = []
1529
1530        for p in expression.expressions:
1531            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1532            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1533                with_properties.append(p)
1534            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1535                root_properties.append(p)
1536
1537        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1538        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1539
1540        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1541            with_props = " " + with_props
1542
1543        return root_props + with_props
1544
1545    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1546        if properties.expressions:
1547            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1548        return ""
1549
1550    def properties(
1551        self,
1552        properties: exp.Properties,
1553        prefix: str = "",
1554        sep: str = ", ",
1555        suffix: str = "",
1556        wrapped: bool = True,
1557    ) -> str:
1558        if properties.expressions:
1559            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1560            if expressions:
1561                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1562                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1563        return ""
1564
1565    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1566        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1567
1568    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1569        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1570        for p in properties.expressions:
1571            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1572            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1573                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1574            else:
1575                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1576
1577        return properties_locs
1578
1579    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1580        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1581            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1582        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1583
1584    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1585        property_cls = expression.__class__
1586        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1587            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1588
1589        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1590        if not property_name:
1591            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1592
1593        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1594
1595    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1596        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1597            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1598            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1599
1600            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1601            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1602                like = f"({like})"
1603
1604            return like
1605
1606        if expression.expressions:
1607            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1608
1609        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1610        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1611
1612    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1613        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1614        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1615        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1616
1617    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1618        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1619        local = expression.args.get("local")
1620        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1621        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1622        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1623        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1624        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1625
1626    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1627        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1628        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1629        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1630
1631    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1632        if expression.args.get("default"):
1633            property = "DEFAULT"
1634        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1635            property = "ON"
1636        else:
1637            property = "OFF"
1638        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1639
1640    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1641        if expression.args.get("no"):
1642            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1643        if expression.args.get("default"):
1644            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1645
1646        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1647        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1648
1649    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1650        default = expression.args.get("default")
1651        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1652        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1653        if default or minimum or maximum:
1654            if default:
1655                prop = "DEFAULT"
1656            elif minimum:
1657                prop = "MINIMUM"
1658            else:
1659                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1660            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1661        units = expression.args.get("units")
1662        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1663        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1664
1665    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1666        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1667        always = expression.args.get("always")
1668        default = expression.args.get("default")
1669        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1670        never = expression.args.get("never")
1671
1672        if autotemp is not None:
1673            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1674        elif always:
1675            prop = "ALWAYS"
1676        elif default:
1677            prop = "DEFAULT"
1678        elif manual:
1679            prop = "MANUAL"
1680        elif never:
1681            prop = "NEVER"
1682        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1683
1684    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1685        no = expression.args.get("no")
1686        no = " NO" if no else ""
1687        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1688        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1689        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1690        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1691        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1692
1693    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1694        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1695            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1696        if expression.this:
1697            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1698            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1699            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1700
1701        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1702        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1703        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1704
1705    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1707
1708        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1709        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1710            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1711        else:
1712            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1713
1714        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1715
1716    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1717        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1718        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1719        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1720        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1721        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1722        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1723        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1724
1725    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1726        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1727        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1728        statistics_sql = ""
1729        if statistics is not None:
1730            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1731        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1732
1733    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1735        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1736        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1737        data_consistency = (
1738            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1739        )
1740        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1741        retention_period = (
1742            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1743        )
1744
1745        if this:
1746            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1747        else:
1748            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1749
1750        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1751
1752        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1753
1754    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1755        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1756        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1757
1758        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1759            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1760        else:
1761            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1762
1763        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1764        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1765        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1766        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1767        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1768        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1769        if is_function:
1770            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1771        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1772
1773        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1774        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1775        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1776        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1777        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1778        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1779        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1780        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1781
1782        if self.RETURNING_END:
1783            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1784        else:
1785            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1786
1787        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1788        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1789        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1790        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1791
1792        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1793        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1794
1795        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1796        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1797
1798    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1799        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1800
1801    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1802        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1803        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1805        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1806        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1807
1808    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1809        return expression.name
1810
1811    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1812        return expression.name
1813
1814    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1815        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1816
1817        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1818        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1819
1820        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1821        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1822        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1823
1824        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1825        if expressions:
1826            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1827            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1828
1829        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1830
1831    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1832        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1833
1834    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1835        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1836        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1837        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1838        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1839        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1840        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1841        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1842        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1843        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1844        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1845        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1846        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1847        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1848
1849    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1850        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1851
1852    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1853        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1854        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1855        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1856        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1857
1858    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1860        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1861        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1862        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1863
1864    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1865        return ".".join(
1866            self.sql(part)
1867            for part in (
1868                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1869                expression.args.get("db"),
1870                expression.args.get("this"),
1871            )
1872            if part is not None
1873        )
1874
1875    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1876        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1877        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1878        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1879        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1880        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1881        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1882        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1883        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1884
1885        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1886        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1887            sample_pre_alias = sample
1888            sample_post_alias = ""
1889        else:
1890            sample_pre_alias = ""
1891            sample_post_alias = sample
1892
1893        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1894        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1895        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1896        joins = self.indent(
1897            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1898        )
1899        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1900
1901        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1902        if file_format:
1903            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1904            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1905            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1906
1907        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1908        if ordinality:
1909            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1910            alias = ""
1911
1912        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1913        if when:
1914            table = f"{table} {when}"
1915
1916        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1917        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1918
1919        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1920        if rows_from:
1921            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1922
1923        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1924
1925    def tablesample_sql(
1926        self,
1927        expression: exp.TableSample,
1928        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1929    ) -> str:
1930        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1931        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1932        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1933        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1934        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1935        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1936        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1937        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1938        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1939
1940        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1941        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1942            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1943
1944        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1945        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1946            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1947
1948        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1949        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1950            expr = f"({expr})"
1951
1952        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1953
1954    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1955        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1956
1957        if expression.this:
1958            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1959            if not expressions:
1960                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1961
1962            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1963            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1964            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1965            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1966            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1967
1968        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1969        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1970        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1971
1972        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1973
1974        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1975        if include_nulls is not None:
1976            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1977        else:
1978            nulls = ""
1979
1980        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1981        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1982        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1983
1984    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1985        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1986        kind = expression.text("kind")
1987        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1988        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1989
1990    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1991        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1992
1993    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1995        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1996        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1997        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1998        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1999        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2000        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2001        if self.RETURNING_END:
2002            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2003        else:
2004            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2005        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2006        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2007
2008    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2009        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2010
2011        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2012        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2013            args = self.expressions(expression)
2014            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2015            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2016            values = (
2017                f"({values})"
2018                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2019                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2020                else values
2021            )
2022            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2023
2024        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2025        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2026        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2027
2028        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2029
2030        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2031            row = tup.expressions
2032
2033            if i == 0 and column_names:
2034                row = [
2035                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2036                ]
2037
2038            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2039
2040        if self.pretty:
2041            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2042            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2043            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2044            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2045            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2046
2047        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2048        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2049        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2050
2051    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2052        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2053
2054    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2055    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2056        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2057        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2058        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2059
2060    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2061        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2062
2063    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2064        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2065        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2066
2067    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2068        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2069        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2070
2071    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2072        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2073        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2074
2075    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2076        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2077        if group_by_all is True:
2078            modifier = " ALL"
2079        elif group_by_all is False:
2080            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2081        else:
2082            modifier = ""
2083
2084        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2085
2086        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2087        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2088        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2089
2090        groupings = csv(
2091            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2092            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2093            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2094            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2095            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2096        )
2097
2098        if (
2099            expression.expressions
2100            and groupings
2101            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2102        ):
2103            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2104
2105        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2106
2107    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2108        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2109        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2110
2111    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2112        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2113        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2114        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2115        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2116        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2117        return start + connect
2118
2119    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2120        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2121
2122    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2123        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2124            side = None
2125        else:
2126            side = expression.side
2127
2128        op_sql = " ".join(
2129            op
2130            for op in (
2131                expression.method,
2132                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2133                side,
2134                expression.kind,
2135                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2136            )
2137            if op
2138        )
2139        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2140        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2141        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2142        using = expression.args.get("using")
2143
2144        if not on_sql and using:
2145            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2146
2147        this = expression.this
2148        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2149
2150        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2151        if exprs:
2152            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2153
2154        if on_sql:
2155            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2156            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2157            if using:
2158                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2159            else:
2160                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2161        elif not op_sql:
2162            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2163                return f" {this_sql}"
2164
2165            return f", {this_sql}"
2166
2167        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2168            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2169
2170        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2171
2172    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2173        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2174        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2175        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2176
2177    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2178        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2179
2180        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2181        if cross_apply is True:
2182            op = "INNER JOIN "
2183        elif cross_apply is False:
2184            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2185        else:
2186            op = ""
2187
2188        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2189
2190    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2191        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2192
2193        if expression.args.get("view"):
2194            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2195            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2196            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2197            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2198            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2199            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2200
2201        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2202        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2203        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2204
2205    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2207
2208        args = [
2209            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2210            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2211            if e
2212        ]
2213
2214        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2215        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2216        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2217        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2218
2219        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2220
2221    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2223        value = expression.expression
2224        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2225        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2226        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2227        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2228
2229    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2230        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2231        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2233        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2234        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2235        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2236        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2237        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2238
2239    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2240        expressions = (
2241            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2242        )
2243        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2244        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2245
2246    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2247        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2248
2249    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2250        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2251            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2252            return ""
2253
2254        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2255        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2256        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2257        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2258
2259        if wait is not None:
2260            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2261                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2262            else:
2263                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2264
2265        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2266
2267    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2268        text = expression.this or ""
2269        if expression.is_string:
2270            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2271        return text
2272
2273    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2274        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2275            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2276            text = "".join(
2277                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2278            )
2279
2280        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2281            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2282        )
2283
2284    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2285        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2286        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2287        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2288        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2289        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2290        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2291        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2292        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2293        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2294        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2295        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2296
2297    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2298        return "NULL"
2299
2300    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2301        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2302
2303    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2304        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2305        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2306        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2307        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2308
2309    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2310        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2311        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2312        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2313        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2314        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2315        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2316        interpolated_values = [
2317            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2318            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2319        ]
2320        interpolate = (
2321            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2322        )
2323        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2324
2325    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2326        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2327
2328    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2329        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2330
2331    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2332        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2333
2334    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2335        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2336        asc = not desc
2337
2338        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2339        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2340        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2341        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2342        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2343
2344        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2345
2346        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2347        nulls_sort_change = ""
2348        if nulls_first and (
2349            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2350        ):
2351            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2352        elif (
2353            nulls_last
2354            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2355            and not nulls_are_last
2356        ):
2357            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2358
2359        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2360        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2361            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2362            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2363                self.unsupported(
2364                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2365                )
2366                nulls_sort_change = ""
2367            elif (
2368                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2369                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2370                and (
2371                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2372                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2373                )
2374            ):
2375                self.unsupported(
2376                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2377                )
2378                nulls_sort_change = ""
2379            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2380                if expression.this.is_int:
2381                    self.unsupported(
2382                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2383                    )
2384                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2385                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2386                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2387                nulls_sort_change = ""
2388
2389        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2390        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2391
2392        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2393
2394    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2395        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2396        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2397
2398        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2399
2400        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2401
2402    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2403        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2404        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2405        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2406        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2407        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2408        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2409        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2410        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2411        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2412        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2413        definition_sqls = [
2414            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2415            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2416        ]
2417        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2418        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2419        body = "".join(
2420            (
2421                partition,
2422                order,
2423                measures,
2424                rows,
2425                after,
2426                pattern,
2427                define,
2428            )
2429        )
2430        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2431        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2432        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2433
2434    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2435        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2436
2437        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2438            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2439        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2440            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2441
2442        return csv(
2443            *sqls,
2444            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2445            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2446            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2447            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2448            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2449            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2450            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2451            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2452            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2453            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2454            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2455            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2456            self.options_modifier(expression),
2457            sep="",
2458        )
2459
2460    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2461        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2462        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2463
2464    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2465        return ""
2466
2467    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2468        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2469    ) -> t.List[str]:
2470        return [
2471            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2472            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2473        ]
2474
2475    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2476        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2477        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2478        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2479
2480    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2481        into = expression.args.get("into")
2482        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2483            into.pop()
2484
2485        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2486        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2487        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2488        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2489
2490        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2491        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2492            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2493            limit.pop()
2494        else:
2495            top = ""
2496
2497        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2498
2499        if kind:
2500            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2501                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2502            else:
2503                if kind == "STRUCT":
2504                    expressions = self.expressions(
2505                        sqls=[
2506                            self.sql(
2507                                exp.Struct(
2508                                    expressions=[
2509                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2510                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2511                                        else e
2512                                        for e in expression.expressions
2513                                    ]
2514                                )
2515                            )
2516                        ]
2517                    )
2518                kind = ""
2519
2520        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2521        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2522
2523        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2524        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2525        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2526        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2527        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2528            expression,
2529            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2530            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2531            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2532        )
2533
2534        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2535        if expression.args.get("with"):
2536            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2537            expression.pop_comments()
2538
2539        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2540
2541        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2542            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2543                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2544            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2545                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2546            else:
2547                table_kind = ""
2548            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2549
2550        return sql
2551
2552    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2553        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2554        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2555        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2556
2557    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2558        if expression.expressions:
2559            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2560        return ""
2561
2562    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2563        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2564        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2565        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2566        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2567        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2568        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2569        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2570
2571    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2573        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2574
2575    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2577        kind = expression.text("kind")
2578        if kind:
2579            kind = f"{kind}."
2580        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2581
2582    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2583        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2584
2585    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2586        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2587        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2588        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2589        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2590            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2591
2592            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2593            expression.set("sample", None)
2594
2595        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2596        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2597        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2598
2599    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2600        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2601        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2602
2603    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2604        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2605
2606        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2607        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2608
2609        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2610            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2611                alias.append("columns", offset)
2612
2613        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2614            columns = alias.columns
2615            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2616        else:
2617            alias = self.sql(alias)
2618
2619        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2620        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2621            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2622        else:
2623            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2624                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2625            elif offset:
2626                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2627            else:
2628                suffix = alias
2629
2630        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2631
2632    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2633        return ""
2634
2635    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2636        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2637        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2638
2639    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2641        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2642        order = expression.args.get("order")
2643        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2644        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2645        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2646        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2647
2648        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2649
2650        first = expression.args.get("first")
2651        if first is None:
2652            first = ""
2653        else:
2654            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2655
2656        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2657            return f"{this} {alias}"
2658
2659        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2660        return f"{this} ({args})"
2661
2662    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2663        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2664        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2665
2666    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2668        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2669        end = (
2670            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2671            or "CURRENT ROW"
2672        )
2673        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2674
2675    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2677        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2678        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2679
2680    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2682        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2683        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2684        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2685
2686    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2687        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2688    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2689        return apply_index_offset(
2690            expression.this,
2691            expression.expressions,
2692            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2693        )
2694
2695    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2696        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2697        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2698        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2699
2700    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2701        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2702
2703    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2705        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2706            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2707                this = self.wrap(this)
2708            return f"ANY{this}"
2709        return f"ANY {this}"
2710
2711    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2712        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2713
2714    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2715        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2716        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2717
2718        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2719            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2720            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2721
2722        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2723
2724        if default:
2725            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2726
2727        statements.append("END")
2728
2729        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2730            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2731
2732        return " ".join(statements)
2733
2734    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2736        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2737        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2738
2739    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2740        order = expression.args.get("order")
2741        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2742        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2743
2744    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2745        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2746        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2747        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2748
2749    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2750        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2751
2752        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2753            func_name = "LTRIM"
2754        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2755            func_name = "RTRIM"
2756        else:
2757            func_name = "TRIM"
2758
2759        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2760
2761    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2762        args = expression.expressions
2763        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2764            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2765
2766        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2767            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2768
2769        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2770            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2771
2772        return args
2773
2774    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2775        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2776
2777        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2778        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2779            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2780
2781        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2782
2783    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2784        return self.func(
2785            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2786        )
2787
2788    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2789        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2790        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2791
2792    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2793        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2794        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2795        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2796        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2797        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2798        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2799        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2800        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2801
2802    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2803        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2804        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2805        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2806        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2807
2808    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2809        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2810
2811    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2812        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2813        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2814        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2815
2816    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2817        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2818
2819    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2820        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2821
2822        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2823            path = self.escape_str(path)
2824
2825        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2826            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2827
2828        return path
2829
2830    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2831        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2832            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2833            if not callable(transform):
2834                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2835                return ""
2836
2837            return transform(self, expression)
2838
2839        if isinstance(expression, int):
2840            return str(expression)
2841
2842        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2843            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2844            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2845        else:
2846            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2847            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2848
2849        return escaped
2850
2851    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2852        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2853
2854    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2855        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2856        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2857
2858        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2859        if unique_keys is not None:
2860            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2861        else:
2862            unique_keys = ""
2863
2864        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2865        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2866        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2867        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2868
2869        return self.func(
2870            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2871            *expression.expressions,
2872            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2873        )
2874
2875    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2876        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2877
2878    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2879        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2880        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2881        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2882        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2883        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2884        return self.func(
2885            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2886        )
2887
2888    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2890        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2891        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2892        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2893        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2894        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2895        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2896        return self.func(
2897            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2898            this,
2899            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2900        )
2901
2902    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2903        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2904        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2905        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2906
2907        if nested_schema:
2908            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2909
2910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2911        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2912        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2913        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2914
2915    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2916        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2917
2918    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2920        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2921        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2922        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2923        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2924        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2925        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2926        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2927        return self.func(
2928            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2929        )
2930
2931    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2933        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2934        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2935        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2936        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2937        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2938
2939    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2940        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2941        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2942        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2943        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2944        with_ = (
2945            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2946            if expressions
2947            else ""
2948        )
2949        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2950
2951    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2952        query = expression.args.get("query")
2953        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2954        field = expression.args.get("field")
2955        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2956
2957        if query:
2958            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2959        elif unnest:
2960            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2961        elif field:
2962            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2963        else:
2964            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2965
2966        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2967
2968    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2969        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2970
2971    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2972        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2973        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2974            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2975        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2976
2977        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2978            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2979            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2980
2981        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2982        if this:
2983            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2984            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2985
2986        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2987
2988    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2989        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2990
2991    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2993        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2994        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2995        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2996        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2997        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2998
2999    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3000        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3001        parent = expression.parent
3002        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3003        return self.func(
3004            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3005        )
3006
3007    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3008        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3009        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3010
3011    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3012        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3013        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3014        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3015        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3016
3017    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3018        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3019
3020    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3021        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3022        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3023        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3024
3025    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3026        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3027
3028        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3029        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3030
3031        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3032            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3033        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3034            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3035
3036        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3037
3038    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3039        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3040
3041    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3042        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3043        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3044        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3045
3046    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3047        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3048        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3049        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3050
3051    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3053        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3054        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3055
3056    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3057        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3058
3059    def and_sql(
3060        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3061    ) -> str:
3062        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3063
3064    def or_sql(
3065        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3066    ) -> str:
3067        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3068
3069    def xor_sql(
3070        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3071    ) -> str:
3072        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3073
3074    def connector_sql(
3075        self,
3076        expression: exp.Connector,
3077        op: str,
3078        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3079    ) -> str:
3080        if stack is not None:
3081            if expression.expressions:
3082                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3083            else:
3084                stack.append(expression.right)
3085                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3086                    for comment in expression.comments:
3087                        if comment:
3088                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3089                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3090            return op
3091
3092        stack = [expression]
3093        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3094        ops = set()
3095
3096        while stack:
3097            node = stack.pop()
3098            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3099                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3100            else:
3101                sql = self.sql(node)
3102                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3103                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3104                else:
3105                    sqls.append(sql)
3106
3107        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3108        return sep.join(sqls)
3109
3110    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3111        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3112
3113    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3114        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3115
3116    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3117        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3118
3119    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3120        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3121
3122    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3123        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3124
3125    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3126        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3127
3128    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3129        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3130        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3131        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3132        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3133        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3134        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3135        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3136
3137    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3138        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3139        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3140
3141    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3142        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3143            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3144        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3145
3146    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3147        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3148
3149    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3151        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3152        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3153        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3154        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3155        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3156
3157    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3158        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3159        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3160        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3161        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3162        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3163        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3164        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3165        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3166        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3167
3168    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3169        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3170        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3171        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3172        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3173
3174        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3175            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3176
3177        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3178
3179    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3180        return "BEGIN"
3181
3182    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3183        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3184        if chain is not None:
3185            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3186
3187        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3188
3189    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3190        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3191        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3192        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3193
3194    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3196
3197        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3198        if dtype:
3199            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3200            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3201            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3202            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3203            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3204
3205        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3206        if default:
3207            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3208
3209        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3210        if comment:
3211            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3212
3213        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3214        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3215
3216        if not drop and not allow_null:
3217            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3218
3219        if allow_null is not None:
3220            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3221            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3222
3223        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3224
3225    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3227        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3228            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3229        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3230
3231    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3232        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3234        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3235        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3236        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3237
3238    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3239        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3240            # Remove db from tables
3241            expression = expression.transform(
3242                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3243            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3245        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3246
3247    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3248        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3249        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3250        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3251        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3252
3253    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3254        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3255        return f"SET {exprs}"
3256
3257    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3258        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3259
3260        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3261            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3262        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3263            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3264        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3265            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3266        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3267            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3268        else:
3269            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3270
3271        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3272        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3273        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3274        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3275        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3276        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3277        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3278        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3279
3280        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3281
3282    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3283        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3284            return self.expressions(
3285                expression,
3286                key="actions",
3287                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3288                skip_first=True,
3289            )
3290        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3291
3292    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3293        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3294        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3295        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3296
3297    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3298        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3299
3300    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3301        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3302
3303        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3304            case = exp.case()
3305            for arg in expression.expressions:
3306                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3307            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3308
3309        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3310
3311        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3312        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3313        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3314
3315    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3316        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3317
3318    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3319        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3320
3321    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3322        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3323        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3324        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3325        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3326
3327    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3328        return self.sql(
3329            exp.Cast(
3330                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3331                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3332            )
3333        )
3334
3335    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3336        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3337            return self.func(
3338                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3339            )
3340        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3341
3342    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3343        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3344
3345        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3346            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3347
3348        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3349            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3350                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3351
3352        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3353            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3354                return self.sql(
3355                    exp.cast(
3356                        l / r,
3357                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3358                    )
3359                )
3360
3361        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3362
3363    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3364        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3365
3366    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3367        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3368
3369    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3370        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3371
3372    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3373        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3374
3375    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3376        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3377
3378    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3379        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3380
3381    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3382        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3383
3384    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3385        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3386
3387    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3388        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3389
3390    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3391        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3392
3393    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3394        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3395
3396    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3397        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3398            return self.sql(
3399                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3400            )
3401        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3402
3403    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3404        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3405
3406    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3407        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3408
3409    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3410        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3411
3412    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3413        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3414
3415    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3416        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3417
3418    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3419        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3420
3421    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3422        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3423
3424    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3425        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3426
3427    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3428        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3429
3430    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3431        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3432
3433    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3434        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3435
3436    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3437        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3438
3439    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3440        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3441
3442    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3443        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3444            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3445            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3446
3447        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3448
3449    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3450        this = expression.this
3451        expr = expression.expression
3452
3453        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3454            this, expr = expr, this
3455        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3456            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3457                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3458
3459            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3460
3461        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3462
3463    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3464        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3465        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3467        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3468        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3469
3470    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3471        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3472        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3473        binary_type = type(expression)
3474
3475        while stack:
3476            node = stack.pop()
3477
3478            if type(node) is binary_type:
3479                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3480                if op_func:
3481                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3482
3483                stack.append(node.right)
3484                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3485                stack.append(node.left)
3486            else:
3487                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3488
3489        return "".join(sqls)
3490
3491    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3492        args = []
3493
3494        for key in expression.arg_types:
3495            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3496
3497            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3498                for value in arg_value:
3499                    args.append(value)
3500            elif arg_value is not None:
3501                args.append(arg_value)
3502
3503        if self.normalize_functions:
3504            name = expression.sql_name()
3505        else:
3506            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3507
3508        return self.func(name, *args)
3509
3510    def func(
3511        self,
3512        name: str,
3513        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3514        prefix: str = "(",
3515        suffix: str = ")",
3516        normalize: bool = True,
3517    ) -> str:
3518        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3519        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3520
3521    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3522        arg_sqls = tuple(
3523            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3524        )
3525        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3526            return self.indent(
3527                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3528            )
3529        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3530
3531    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3532        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3533
3534    def format_time(
3535        self,
3536        expression: exp.Expression,
3537        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3538        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3539    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3540        return format_time(
3541            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3542            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3543            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3544        )
3545
3546    def expressions(
3547        self,
3548        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3549        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3550        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3551        flat: bool = False,
3552        indent: bool = True,
3553        skip_first: bool = False,
3554        skip_last: bool = False,
3555        sep: str = ", ",
3556        prefix: str = "",
3557        dynamic: bool = False,
3558        new_line: bool = False,
3559    ) -> str:
3560        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3561
3562        if not expressions:
3563            return ""
3564
3565        if flat:
3566            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3567
3568        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3569        result_sqls = []
3570
3571        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3572            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3573            if not sql:
3574                continue
3575
3576            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3577
3578            if self.pretty:
3579                if self.leading_comma:
3580                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3581                else:
3582                    result_sqls.append(
3583                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3584                    )
3585            else:
3586                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3587
3588        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3589            if new_line:
3590                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3591                result_sqls.append("")
3592            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3593        else:
3594            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3595
3596        return (
3597            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3598            if indent
3599            else result_sql
3600        )
3601
3602    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3603        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3604        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3605        if flat:
3606            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3607        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3608
3609    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3610        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3611        if not property_name:
3612            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3613        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3614
3615    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3616        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3617
3618    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3619        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3620
3621    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3623        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3624        expressions = (
3625            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3626        )
3627        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3628
3629    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3630        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3631        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3632        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3633
3634    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3635        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3636
3637    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3638        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3639        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3640        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3641        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3642
3643        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3644        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3645            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3646            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3647            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3648            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3649        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3650            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3651                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3652            else:
3653                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3654        else:
3655            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3656        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3657
3658    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3659        table = expression.this
3660        table_alias = ""
3661
3662        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3663        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3664            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3665            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3666
3667        this = self.sql(table)
3668        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3669        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3670        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3671        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3672        if returning:
3673            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3674
3675        sep = self.sep()
3676
3677        return self.prepend_ctes(
3678            expression,
3679            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3680        )
3681
3682    @unsupported_args("format")
3683    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3684        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3685
3686    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3687        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3688            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3689            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3690
3691        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3692        if not fmt:
3693            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3694            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3695
3696        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3697
3698    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3700        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3701        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3702        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3703        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3704
3705    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3707        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3708        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3709        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3710
3711    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3712        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3713
3714    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3715        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3716
3717    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3718    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3719        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3720        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3721        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3722        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3723        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3724        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3725        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3726
3727    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3728        return ""
3729
3730    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3731        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3732        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3733        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3734        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3735        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3736
3737    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3739        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3740
3741        if having:
3742            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3743
3744        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3745
3746    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3747        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3748        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3749        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3750        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3751        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3752        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3753        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3754        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3755        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3756        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3757        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3758        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3759        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3760
3761    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3762        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3763        if key_block_size:
3764            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3765
3766        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3767        if using:
3768            return f"USING {using}"
3769
3770        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3771        if parser:
3772            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3773
3774        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3775        if comment:
3776            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3777
3778        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3779        if visible is not None:
3780            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3781
3782        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3783        if engine_attr:
3784            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3785
3786        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3787        if secondary_engine_attr:
3788            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3789
3790        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3791        return ""
3792
3793    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3794        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3795        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3796
3797    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3798        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3799        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3801        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3802        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3803        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3804        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3805        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3806        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3807        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3808        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3809
3810    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3811        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3812            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3813
3814        case = exp.Case().when(
3815            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3816            expression.args["true"],
3817            copy=False,
3818        )
3819        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3820        if else_cond:
3821            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3822
3823        return self.sql(case)
3824
3825    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3827        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3828        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3829        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3830        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3831        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3832
3833    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3834        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3835
3836    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3837        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3838
3839    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3840        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3841        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3842        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3843        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3844        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3845        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3846
3847    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3849        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3850        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3851
3852    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3854        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3855        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3856
3857    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3858        arg = expression.this
3859        if not arg.type:
3860            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3861
3862            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3863
3864        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3865            return self.sql(arg)
3866
3867        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3868        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3869
3870    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3871        this = expression.this
3872        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3873            return self.sql(this)
3874
3875        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3876
3877    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3878        this = expression.this
3879        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3880            return self.sql(this)
3881
3882        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3883
3884    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3885        this = expression.this
3886        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3887
3888        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3889            return self.sql(
3890                exp.cast(
3891                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3892                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3893                )
3894            )
3895
3896        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3897            return self.sql(this)
3898
3899        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3900
3901    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3902        return self.sql(
3903            exp.func(
3904                "DATEDIFF",
3905                expression.this,
3906                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3907                "day",
3908            )
3909        )
3910
3911    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3912        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3913            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3914
3915        unit = expression.text("unit")
3916        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3917            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3918
3919        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3920
3921    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3922        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3923
3924        return self.func(
3925            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3926        )
3927
3928    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3929        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3930            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3931            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3932            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3933            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3934
3935        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3936
3937        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3938        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3939            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3940
3941        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3942
3943    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3944        expression.set(
3945            "expressions",
3946            [
3947                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3948                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3949                else e
3950                for e in expression.expressions
3951            ],
3952        )
3953
3954        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3955
3956    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3957        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3958        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3959
3960        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3961
3962    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3963        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3964        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3965
3966        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3967
3968        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3969        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3970
3971        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3972        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3973
3974        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3975        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3976
3977        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3978        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3979
3980        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3981
3982    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3983    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3984    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3985        to = expression.this
3986        value = expression.expression
3987        style = expression.args.get("style")
3988        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3989        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3990
3991        if not to or not value:
3992            return ""
3993
3994        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3995        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3996            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3997
3998        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3999        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4000
4001        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4002        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4003            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4004
4005            style_value = style.name
4006            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4007            if not converted_style:
4008                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4009
4010            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4011
4012            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4013                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4014            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
4015                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4016            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4017                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4018            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4019                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4020
4021        if not transformed:
4022            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4023
4024        return self.sql(transformed)
4025
4026    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4027        this = expression.this
4028        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4029            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4030            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4031
4032        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4033            return f".{this}"
4034
4035        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4036        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4037
4038    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4039        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4040        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4041
4042    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4043        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4044            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4045
4046            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4047
4048        return expression
4049
4050    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4051        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4052            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4053            mods = sorted(
4054                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4055                key=lambda x: 0
4056                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4057                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4058            )
4059
4060            if mods:
4061                mod = mods[0]
4062                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4063                this.meta["inline"] = True
4064                mod.this.replace(this)
4065                return self.sql(expression.this)
4066
4067            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4068
4069            if agg_func:
4070                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4071
4072        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4073
4074    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4075        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4076        if self.pretty:
4077            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4078        return string
4079
4080    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4081        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4082
4083        if expression.expressions:
4084            upper = option.upper()
4085
4086            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4087            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4088
4089            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4090            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4091            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4092            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4093
4094        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4095
4096        if not value:
4097            return option
4098
4099        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4100
4101        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4102
4103    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4104        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4105        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4106            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4107            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4108            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4109        else:
4110            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4111            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4112            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4113
4114        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4115        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4116
4117        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4118        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4119
4120        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4121        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4122
4123        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4124        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4125
4126        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4127
4128    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4130        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4131
4132        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4133        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4134        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4135        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4136
4137        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4138        params = self.expressions(
4139            expression,
4140            key="params",
4141            sep=sep,
4142            new_line=True,
4143            skip_last=True,
4144            skip_first=True,
4145            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4146        )
4147
4148        if params:
4149            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4150                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4151            elif not self.pretty:
4152                params = f" {params}"
4153
4154        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4155
4156    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4157        return ""
4158
4159    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4160        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4161        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4162        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4163        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4164        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4165
4166        if filter_col or retention_period:
4167            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4168
4169        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4170
4171    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4172        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4173    ) -> str:
4174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4175        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4176        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4177        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4178
4179    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4181        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4182        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4183
4184    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4185        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4186
4187    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4189        expr = expression.expression
4190
4191        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4192            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4193            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4194        else:
4195            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4196
4197        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4198
4199    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4200        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4201            return self.sql(expression.this)
4202
4203        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4204
4205    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4206        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4207        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4208
4209        if lower and upper:
4210            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4211        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4212
4213    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4214        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4215        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4216        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4217        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4218        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4219        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4220
4221        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4222
4223    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4224        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4225
4226        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4227        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4228            fill_pattern = "' '"
4229
4230        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4231
4232    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4233        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4234        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4235
4236    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4237        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4238
4239        parent = expression.parent
4240        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4241            parent = parent.parent
4242
4243        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4244            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4245
4246        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4247            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4248
4249        return self.sql(generate_series)
4250
4251    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4252        exprs = expression.expressions
4253        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4254            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4255        else:
4256            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4257
4258        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4259
4260    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4261        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4262            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4263
4264        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4265        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4266        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4267
4268        if source_tz and timestamp:
4269            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4270                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4271            )
4272
4273        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4274
4275        return self.sql(expr)
4276
4277    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4279        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4280
4281        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4282
4283        if _with is None:
4284            with_sql = ""
4285        elif not _with:
4286            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4287        else:
4288            with_sql = " WITH"
4289
4290        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4291
4292        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4293
4294    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4295        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4296            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4297
4298        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4299        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4300        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4301
4302        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4303        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4304
4305        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4306
4307    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4308        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4309        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4310        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4311        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4312        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4313
4314    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4315        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4316        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4317        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4318        return res
4319
4320    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4321        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4322        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4323        empty = (
4324            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4325            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4326            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4327        )
4328
4329        error = expression.args.get("error")
4330        error = (
4331            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4332            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4333            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4334        )
4335
4336        if error and empty:
4337            error = (
4338                f"{empty} {error}"
4339                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4340                else f"{error} {empty}"
4341            )
4342            empty = ""
4343
4344        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4345
4346        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4347
4348    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4349        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4350        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4351
4352        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4353        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4354
4355        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4356        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4357
4358        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4359
4360        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4361
4362    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4363        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4364
4365        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4366            parent = expression.parent
4367            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4368                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4369                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4370            else:
4371                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4372                this = expression.this
4373                this_sql = (
4374                    self.expressions(this)
4375                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4376                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
4377                )
4378                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4379
4380        return array_agg
4381
4382    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4384        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4385
4386        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4387
4388    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4389        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4390
4391        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4392        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4393
4394        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4395        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4396
4397        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4398
4399        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4400
4401        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4402
4403    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4404        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4405        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4406        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4407
4408        return f"{this}{columns}"
4409
4410    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4412
4413        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4414        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4415
4416        return f"{kind}{this}"
4417
4418    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4419        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4420        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4421            func = f"*{func}"
4422
4423        return func
4424
4425    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4426        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4427        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4428        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4429        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4430        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4431
4432        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4433
4434    @unsupported_args("format")
4435    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4436        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4437
4438    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4439        this = expression.this
4440        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4441
4442        if zone:
4443            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4444            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4445            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4446            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4447                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4448            )
4449
4450        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))