sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 118        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
 119        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 120        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 121        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 124        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 125        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 126        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 130        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 131        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 135        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 138        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 139        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 141        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 142        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 143        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 144        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 145        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 146        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 147        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 148        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 149        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 150        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 151        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 152        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 153        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 154        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 155        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 156        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 157        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 158        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 159        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 160        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 161        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 162        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 163        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 164        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 165        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 166        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 169        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 173        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 175        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 177            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 178        ),
 179        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 180        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 181        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 183        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 184        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 185        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 187        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 188        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 189        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 190        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 192        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 193        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 194        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 195        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 196        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 197        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 198        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 199        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 200        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 201        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 202        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 203        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 205        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 206        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 207        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 208        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 209        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 210        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 211        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 212        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 213    }
 214
 215    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 216    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 217    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 218    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 219
 220    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 221    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 222    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 223
 224    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 225    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 226
 227    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 228    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 229
 230    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 231    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 232
 233    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 234    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 235
 236    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 237    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 238
 239    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 240    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 241
 242    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 243    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 244
 245    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 246    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 247
 248    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 249    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 250
 251    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 252    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 253
 254    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 255    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 256
 257    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 258    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 259
 260    # Whether join hints should be generated
 261    JOIN_HINTS = True
 262
 263    # Whether table hints should be generated
 264    TABLE_HINTS = True
 265
 266    # Whether query hints should be generated
 267    QUERY_HINTS = True
 268
 269    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 270    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 271
 272    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 273    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 274
 275    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 276    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 277
 278    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 279    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 280
 281    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 282    RETURNING_END = True
 283
 284    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 285    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 286
 287    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 288    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 289
 290    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 291    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 292
 293    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 294    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 295
 296    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 297    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 298    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 299    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 300
 301    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 302    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 303
 304    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 305    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 306
 307    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 308    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 309
 310    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 311    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 312
 313    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 314    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 315
 316    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 317    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 318
 319    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 320    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 321
 322    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 323    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 324
 325    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 326    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 327
 328    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 329    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 330
 331    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 332    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 333
 334    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 335    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 336
 337    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 338    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 339
 340    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 341    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 342
 343    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 344    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 345
 346    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 347    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 348
 349    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 350    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 351
 352    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 353    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 354
 355    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 356    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 357
 358    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 359    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 360
 361    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 362    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 363
 364    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 365    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 366
 367    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 368    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 369
 370    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 371    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 372
 373    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 374    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 375
 376    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 377    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 378    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 379
 380    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 381    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 382
 383    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 384    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 385
 386    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 387    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 388
 389    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 390    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 391
 392    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 393    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 394
 395    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 396    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 397
 398    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 399    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 400    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 401    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 402
 403    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 404    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 405
 406    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 407    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 408
 409    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 410    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 411
 412    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 413    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 414
 415    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 416    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 417
 418    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 419    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 420
 421    # The HEX function name
 422    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 423
 424    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 425    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 426
 427    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 428    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 429
 430    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 431    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 432
 433    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 434    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 435
 436    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 437    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 438
 439    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 440    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 441
 442    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 443    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 444
 445    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 446    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 447
 448    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 449    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 450
 451    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 452    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 453
 454    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
 455    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"
 456
 457    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 458    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 459    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 460    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 461    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 462
 463    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 464        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 465        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 466        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 467        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 468        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 469        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 470        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 471        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 472        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 473        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 474        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 475        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 476    }
 477
 478    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 479        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 480        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 481        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 482        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 483        "DAYS": "DAY",
 484        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 485        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 486        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 487        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 488    }
 489
 490    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 491        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 492        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 493        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 494        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 495            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 496            if e.args.get("windows")
 497            else ""
 498        ),
 499        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 500    }
 501
 502    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 503
 504    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 505
 506    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 507    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 508
 509    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 510
 511    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 512        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 514        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 518        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 520        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 526        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 527        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 529        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 532        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 536        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 539        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 540        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 541        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 542        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 543        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 544        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 546        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 549        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 550        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 555        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 556        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 557        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 558        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 559        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 561        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 564        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 567        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 572        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 575        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 576        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 578        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 580        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 581        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 582        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 583        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 584        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 585        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 586        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 588        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 589        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 590        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 591        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 592        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 593        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 594        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 595        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 596        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 597        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 598        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 599        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 600        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 601        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 602        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 603    }
 604
 605    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 606    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 607
 608    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 609    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 610        exp.Command,
 611        exp.Create,
 612        exp.Describe,
 613        exp.Delete,
 614        exp.Drop,
 615        exp.From,
 616        exp.Insert,
 617        exp.Join,
 618        exp.MultitableInserts,
 619        exp.Select,
 620        exp.SetOperation,
 621        exp.Update,
 622        exp.Where,
 623        exp.With,
 624    )
 625
 626    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 627    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 628        exp.Binary,
 629        exp.SetOperation,
 630    )
 631
 632    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 633    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 634        exp.Column,
 635        exp.Literal,
 636        exp.Neg,
 637        exp.Paren,
 638    )
 639
 640    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 641        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 642        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 643        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 644        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 645    }
 646
 647    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 648    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 649
 650    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 651
 652    __slots__ = (
 653        "pretty",
 654        "identify",
 655        "normalize",
 656        "pad",
 657        "_indent",
 658        "normalize_functions",
 659        "unsupported_level",
 660        "max_unsupported",
 661        "leading_comma",
 662        "max_text_width",
 663        "comments",
 664        "dialect",
 665        "unsupported_messages",
 666        "_escaped_quote_end",
 667        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 668        "_next_name",
 669        "_identifier_start",
 670        "_identifier_end",
 671        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 672    )
 673
 674    def __init__(
 675        self,
 676        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 677        identify: str | bool = False,
 678        normalize: bool = False,
 679        pad: int = 2,
 680        indent: int = 2,
 681        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 682        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 683        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 684        leading_comma: bool = False,
 685        max_text_width: int = 80,
 686        comments: bool = True,
 687        dialect: DialectType = None,
 688    ):
 689        import sqlglot
 690        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 691
 692        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 693        self.identify = identify
 694        self.normalize = normalize
 695        self.pad = pad
 696        self._indent = indent
 697        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 698        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 699        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 700        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 701        self.comments = comments
 702        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 703
 704        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 705        self.normalize_functions = (
 706            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 707        )
 708
 709        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 710        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 711            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 712        )
 713        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 714
 715        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 716
 717        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 718        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 719
 720        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 721
 722    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 723        """
 724        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 725
 726        Args:
 727            expression: The syntax tree.
 728            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 729                it is safer to copy.
 730
 731        Returns:
 732            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 733        """
 734        if copy:
 735            expression = expression.copy()
 736
 737        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 738
 739        self.unsupported_messages = []
 740        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 741
 742        if self.pretty:
 743            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 744
 745        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 746            return sql
 747
 748        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 749            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 750                logger.warning(msg)
 751        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 752            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 753
 754        return sql
 755
 756    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 757        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 758        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 759
 760        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 761            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 762
 763            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 764
 765        return expression
 766
 767    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 768        if (
 769            not expression.parent
 770            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 771            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 772        ):
 773            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 774
 775            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 776        return expression
 777
 778    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 779        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 780            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 781        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 782
 783    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 784        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 785
 786    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 787        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 788
 789    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 790        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 791        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 792        return comment
 793
 794    def maybe_comment(
 795        self,
 796        sql: str,
 797        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 798        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 799        separated: bool = False,
 800    ) -> str:
 801        comments = (
 802            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 803            if self.comments
 804            else None
 805        )
 806
 807        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 808            return sql
 809
 810        comments_sql = " ".join(
 811            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 812        )
 813
 814        if not comments_sql:
 815            return sql
 816
 817        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 818
 819        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 820            return (
 821                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 822                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 823                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 824            )
 825
 826        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 827
 828    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 829        this_sql = (
 830            self.sql(expression)
 831            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 832            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 833        )
 834        if not this_sql:
 835            return "()"
 836
 837        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 838        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 839
 840    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 841        original = self.identify
 842        self.identify = False
 843        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 844        self.identify = original
 845        return result
 846
 847    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 848        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 849            return name.upper()
 850        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 851            return name.lower()
 852        return name
 853
 854    def indent(
 855        self,
 856        sql: str,
 857        level: int = 0,
 858        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 859        skip_first: bool = False,
 860        skip_last: bool = False,
 861    ) -> str:
 862        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 863            return sql
 864
 865        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 866        lines = sql.split("\n")
 867
 868        return "\n".join(
 869            (
 870                line
 871                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 872                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 873            )
 874            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 875        )
 876
 877    def sql(
 878        self,
 879        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 880        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 881        comment: bool = True,
 882    ) -> str:
 883        if not expression:
 884            return ""
 885
 886        if isinstance(expression, str):
 887            return expression
 888
 889        if key:
 890            value = expression.args.get(key)
 891            if value:
 892                return self.sql(value)
 893            return ""
 894
 895        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 896
 897        if callable(transform):
 898            sql = transform(self, expression)
 899        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 900            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 901
 902            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 903                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 904            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 905                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 906            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 907                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 908            else:
 909                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 910        else:
 911            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 912
 913        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 914
 915    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 916        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 917        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 918        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 919
 920    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 921        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 922        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 923        options = expression.args.get("options")
 924        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 925        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 926        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 927        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 928        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 929
 930    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 931        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 932            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 933        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 934        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 935
 936    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 937        return ".".join(
 938            self.sql(part)
 939            for part in (
 940                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 941                expression.args.get("db"),
 942                expression.args.get("table"),
 943                expression.args.get("this"),
 944            )
 945            if part
 946        )
 947
 948    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 949        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 950
 951        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 952            join_mark = ""
 953            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 954
 955        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 956
 957    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 958        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 959        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 960        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 961        return f"{position}{this}"
 962
 963    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 964        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 965        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 966        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 967        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 968        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 969        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 970        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 971        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 972
 973        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 974            kind = ""
 975
 976        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 977
 978    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 980        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 981        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 982
 983    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 985        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 986            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 987        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 988            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 989        else:
 990            persisted = ""
 991        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 992
 993    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 994        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 995
 996    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 997        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 998            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 999        else:
1000            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1001
1002        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
1003
1004    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
1005        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
1006    ) -> str:
1007        this = ""
1008        if expression.this is not None:
1009            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1010            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1011
1012        start = expression.args.get("start")
1013        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1014        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1015        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1016        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1017        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1018        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1019        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1020        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1021        cycle_sql = ""
1022
1023        if cycle is not None:
1024            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1025            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1026
1027        sequence_opts = ""
1028        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1029            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1030            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1031
1032        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1033        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1034
1035        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1036
1037    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1038        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1039    ) -> str:
1040        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1041        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1042        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1043
1044    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1045        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1046    ) -> str:
1047        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1048
1049    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1050        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1051
1052    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1053        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1054
1055    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1056        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1057        if desc is not None:
1058            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1059        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1060
1061    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1063        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1064        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1065        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1066        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1067        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1068        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1069        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1070
1071    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1072        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1073
1074    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1075        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1076        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1077        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1078        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1079
1080        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1081
1082        properties_sql = ""
1083        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1084            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1085        ):
1086            properties_sql = self.sql(
1087                exp.Properties(
1088                    expressions=[
1089                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1090                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1091                    ]
1092                )
1093            )
1094
1095            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1096                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1097            elif not self.pretty:
1098                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1099                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1100
1101        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1102        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1103
1104        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1105        if expression_sql:
1106            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1107
1108            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1109                postalias_props_sql = ""
1110                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1111                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1112                        exp.Properties(
1113                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1114                        ),
1115                        wrapped=False,
1116                    )
1117                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1118                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1119
1120        postindex_props_sql = ""
1121        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1122            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1123                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1124                wrapped=False,
1125                prefix=" ",
1126            )
1127
1128        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1129        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1130        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1131
1132        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1133        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1134        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1135
1136        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1137        if clustered is None:
1138            clustered_sql = ""
1139        elif clustered:
1140            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1141        else:
1142            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1143
1144        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1145        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1146            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1147                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1148                sep=" ",
1149                prefix=" ",
1150                wrapped=False,
1151            )
1152
1153        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1154
1155        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1156        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1157            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1158                exp.Properties(
1159                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1160                ),
1161                sep=" ",
1162                prefix=" ",
1163                wrapped=False,
1164            )
1165
1166        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1167        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1168        no_schema_binding = (
1169            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1170        )
1171
1172        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1173        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1174
1175        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1176            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1177        else:
1178            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1179
1180        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1181        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1182
1183    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1184        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1185        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1186        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1187        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1188        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1189        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1190        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1191        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1192        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1193        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1194
1195        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1196        if cache is None:
1197            cache_str = ""
1198        elif cache is True:
1199            cache_str = " CACHE"
1200        else:
1201            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1202
1203        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1204        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1205
1206        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1207
1208    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1210        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1211        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1212        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1213
1214    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1215        style = expression.args.get("style")
1216        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1217        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1218        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1219        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1220        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1221
1222        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1223
1224    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1225        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1226        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1227
1228    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1229        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1230        if with_:
1231            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1232        return sql
1233
1234    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1235        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1236        recursive = (
1237            "RECURSIVE "
1238            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1239            else ""
1240        )
1241
1242        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1243
1244    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1245        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1246        if alias:
1247            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1248
1249        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1250
1251        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1252        if materialized is False:
1253            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1254        elif materialized:
1255            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1256
1257        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1258
1259    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1260        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1261        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1262        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1263
1264        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1265            columns = ""
1266            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1267
1268        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1269            alias = self._next_name()
1270
1271        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1272
1273    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1274        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1275        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1276            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1277        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1278
1279    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1281        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1282            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1283        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1284
1285    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1286        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1287        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1288            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1289        return this
1290
1291    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1292        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1293        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1294
1295        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1296            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1297            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1298        else:
1299            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1300            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1301
1302        if escape:
1303            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1304            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1305        else:
1306            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1307            escape_sql = ""
1308
1309        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1310            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1311
1312        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1313
1314    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1315        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1316        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1317
1318    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1319        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1320        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1321        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1322        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1323
1324    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1325        nested = ""
1326        values = ""
1327        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1328
1329        type_value = expression.this
1330        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1331            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1332        else:
1333            type_sql = (
1334                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1335                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1336                else type_value
1337            )
1338
1339        if interior:
1340            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1341                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1342                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1343                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1344                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1345                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1346            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1347                nested = f" {interior}"
1348            else:
1349                nested = f"({interior})"
1350
1351        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1352        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1353            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1354            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1355        ):
1356            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1357
1358        return type_sql
1359
1360    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1361        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1362        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1363        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1364        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1365
1366    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1367        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1368        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1369        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1370        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1371        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1372        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1373        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1374        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1375        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1376        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1377        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1378        if self.RETURNING_END:
1379            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1380        else:
1381            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1382        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1383
1384    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1386        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1387        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1388        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1389        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1390        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1391        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1392        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1393        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1394        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1395        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1396        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1397        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1398        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1399        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1400
1401    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1402        op_type = type(expression)
1403        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1404
1405        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1406        if (
1407            distinct is False
1408            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1409            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1410        ):
1411            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1412
1413        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1414
1415        if distinct is None:
1416            distinct = default_distinct
1417            if distinct is None:
1418                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1419
1420        if distinct is default_distinct:
1421            kind = ""
1422        else:
1423            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1424
1425        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1426        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1427
1428    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1429        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1430            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1431            order = expression.args.get("order")
1432
1433            if limit or order:
1434                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1435                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1436                )
1437
1438                if limit:
1439                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1440                if order:
1441                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1442                return self.sql(select)
1443
1444        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1445        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1446
1447        while stack:
1448            node = stack.pop()
1449
1450            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1451                stack.append(node.expression)
1452                stack.append(
1453                    self.maybe_comment(
1454                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1455                    )
1456                )
1457                stack.append(node.this)
1458            else:
1459                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1460
1461        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1462        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1463        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1464
1465    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1466        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1467        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1468        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1469        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1470        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1471            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1472        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1473        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1474
1475    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1476        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1477            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1478            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1479            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1480
1481        agg = expression.this
1482        agg_arg = agg.this
1483        cond = expression.expression.this
1484        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1485        return self.sql(agg)
1486
1487    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1488        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1489            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1490            return ""
1491
1492        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1493
1494    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1495        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1496        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1497        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1498        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1499        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1500        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1501        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1502        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1503        if include:
1504            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1505        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1506        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1507        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1508        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1509        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1510        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1511
1512        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1513
1514    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1515        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1516        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1517        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1518        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1519        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1520        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1521        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1522
1523        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1524
1525        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1526        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1527
1528    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1529        text = expression.name
1530        lower = text.lower()
1531        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1532        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1533        if (
1534            expression.quoted
1535            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1536            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1537            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1538        ):
1539            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1540        return text
1541
1542    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1543        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1544        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1545            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1546
1547        return text
1548
1549    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1550        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1551        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1552            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1553        return text
1554
1555    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1556        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1557        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1558        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1559        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1560        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1561
1562    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1563        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1564        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1565
1566    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1567        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
1568        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1569
1570    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1571        root_properties = []
1572        with_properties = []
1573
1574        for p in expression.expressions:
1575            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1576            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1577                with_properties.append(p)
1578            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1579                root_properties.append(p)
1580
1581        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1582        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1583
1584        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1585            with_props = " " + with_props
1586
1587        return root_props + with_props
1588
1589    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1590        if properties.expressions:
1591            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1592        return ""
1593
1594    def properties(
1595        self,
1596        properties: exp.Properties,
1597        prefix: str = "",
1598        sep: str = ", ",
1599        suffix: str = "",
1600        wrapped: bool = True,
1601    ) -> str:
1602        if properties.expressions:
1603            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1604            if expressions:
1605                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1606                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1607        return ""
1608
1609    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1610        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1611
1612    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1613        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1614        for p in properties.expressions:
1615            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1616            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1617                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1618            else:
1619                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1620
1621        return properties_locs
1622
1623    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1624        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1625            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1626        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1627
1628    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1629        property_cls = expression.__class__
1630        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1631            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1632
1633        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1634        if not property_name:
1635            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1636
1637        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1638
1639    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1640        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1641            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1642            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1643
1644            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1645            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1646                like = f"({like})"
1647
1648            return like
1649
1650        if expression.expressions:
1651            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1652
1653        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1654        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1655
1656    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1657        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1658        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1659        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1660
1661    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1662        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1663        local = expression.args.get("local")
1664        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1665        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1666        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1667        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1668        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1669
1670    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1671        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1672        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1673        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1674
1675    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1676        if expression.args.get("default"):
1677            property = "DEFAULT"
1678        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1679            property = "ON"
1680        else:
1681            property = "OFF"
1682        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1683
1684    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1685        if expression.args.get("no"):
1686            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1687        if expression.args.get("default"):
1688            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1689
1690        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1691        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1692
1693    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1694        default = expression.args.get("default")
1695        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1696        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1697        if default or minimum or maximum:
1698            if default:
1699                prop = "DEFAULT"
1700            elif minimum:
1701                prop = "MINIMUM"
1702            else:
1703                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1704            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1705        units = expression.args.get("units")
1706        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1707        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1708
1709    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1710        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1711        always = expression.args.get("always")
1712        default = expression.args.get("default")
1713        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1714        never = expression.args.get("never")
1715
1716        if autotemp is not None:
1717            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1718        elif always:
1719            prop = "ALWAYS"
1720        elif default:
1721            prop = "DEFAULT"
1722        elif manual:
1723            prop = "MANUAL"
1724        elif never:
1725            prop = "NEVER"
1726        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1727
1728    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1729        no = expression.args.get("no")
1730        no = " NO" if no else ""
1731        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1732        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1733        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1734        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1735        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1736
1737    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1738        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1739            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1740        if expression.this:
1741            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1742            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1743            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1744
1745        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1746        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1747        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1748
1749    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1751
1752        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1753        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1754            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1755        else:
1756            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1757
1758        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1759
1760    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1761        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1762        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1763        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1764        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1765        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1766        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1767        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1768
1769    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1770        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1771        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1772        statistics_sql = ""
1773        if statistics is not None:
1774            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1775        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1776
1777    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1779        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1780        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1781        data_consistency = (
1782            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1783        )
1784        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1785        retention_period = (
1786            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1787        )
1788
1789        if this:
1790            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1791        else:
1792            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1793
1794        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1795
1796        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1797
1798    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1799        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1800        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1801
1802        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1803            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1804        else:
1805            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1806
1807        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1808        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1809        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1810        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1811        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1812        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1813        if is_function:
1814            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1815        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1816
1817        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1818        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1819        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1820        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1821        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1822        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1823        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1824        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1825
1826        if self.RETURNING_END:
1827            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1828        else:
1829            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1830
1831        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1832        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1833        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1834        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1835
1836        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1837        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1838
1839        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1840        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1841
1842    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1843        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1844
1845    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1846        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1847        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1849        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1850        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1851
1852    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1853        return expression.name
1854
1855    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1856        return expression.name
1857
1858    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1859        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1860
1861        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1862        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1863
1864        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1865        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1866        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1867
1868        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1869        if expressions:
1870            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1871            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1872
1873        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1874        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1875
1876    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1877        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1878
1879    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1880        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1881        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1882        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1883        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1884        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1885        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1886        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1887        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1888        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1889        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1890        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1891        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1892        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1893
1894    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1895        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1896
1897    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1898        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1899        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1900        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1901        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1902
1903    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1904        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1905        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1906        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1907        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1908
1909    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1910        return ".".join(
1911            self.sql(part)
1912            for part in (
1913                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1914                expression.args.get("db"),
1915                expression.args.get("this"),
1916            )
1917            if part is not None
1918        )
1919
1920    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1921        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1922        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1923        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1924        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1925        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1926        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1927        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1928        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1929
1930        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1931        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1932            sample_pre_alias = sample
1933            sample_post_alias = ""
1934        else:
1935            sample_pre_alias = ""
1936            sample_post_alias = sample
1937
1938        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1939        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1940        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1941        joins = self.indent(
1942            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1943        )
1944        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1945
1946        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1947        if file_format:
1948            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1949            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1950            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1951
1952        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1953        if ordinality:
1954            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1955            alias = ""
1956
1957        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1958        if when:
1959            table = f"{table} {when}"
1960
1961        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1962        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1963
1964        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1965        if rows_from:
1966            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1967
1968        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1969
1970    def tablesample_sql(
1971        self,
1972        expression: exp.TableSample,
1973        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1974    ) -> str:
1975        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1976        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1977        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1978        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1979        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1980        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1981        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1982        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1983        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1984
1985        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1986        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1987            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1988
1989        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1990        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1991            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1992
1993        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1994        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1995            expr = f"({expr})"
1996
1997        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1998
1999    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
2000        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2001        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
2002
2003        if expression.this:
2004            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2005            if not expressions:
2006                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
2007
2008            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2009            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2010            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2011            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2012            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2013            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2014            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2015
2016        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2017        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2018
2019        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
2020
2021        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2022        if include_nulls is not None:
2023            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2024        else:
2025            nulls = ""
2026
2027        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2028        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2029        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
2030
2031    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2032        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2033        kind = expression.text("kind")
2034        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2035        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2036
2037    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2038        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2039
2040    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2041        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2042        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2043        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2044        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2045        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2046        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2047        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2048        if self.RETURNING_END:
2049            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2050        else:
2051            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2052        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2053        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2054
2055    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2056        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2057
2058        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2059        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2060            args = self.expressions(expression)
2061            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2062            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2063            values = (
2064                f"({values})"
2065                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2066                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2067                else values
2068            )
2069            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2070
2071        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2072        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2073        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2074
2075        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2076
2077        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2078            row = tup.expressions
2079
2080            if i == 0 and column_names:
2081                row = [
2082                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2083                ]
2084
2085            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2086
2087        if self.pretty:
2088            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2089            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2090            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2091            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2092            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2093
2094        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2095        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2096        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2097
2098    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2099        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2100
2101    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2102    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2103        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2104        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2105        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2106
2107    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2108        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2109
2110    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2111        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2112        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2113
2114    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2115        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2116        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2117
2118    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2119        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2120        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2121
2122    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2123        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2124        if group_by_all is True:
2125            modifier = " ALL"
2126        elif group_by_all is False:
2127            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2128        else:
2129            modifier = ""
2130
2131        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2132
2133        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2134        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2135        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2136
2137        groupings = csv(
2138            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2139            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2140            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2141            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2142            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2143        )
2144
2145        if (
2146            expression.expressions
2147            and groupings
2148            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2149        ):
2150            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2151
2152        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2153
2154    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2155        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2156        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2157
2158    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2159        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2160        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2161        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2162        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2163        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2164        return start + connect
2165
2166    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2167        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2168
2169    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2170        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2171            side = None
2172        else:
2173            side = expression.side
2174
2175        op_sql = " ".join(
2176            op
2177            for op in (
2178                expression.method,
2179                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2180                side,
2181                expression.kind,
2182                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2183            )
2184            if op
2185        )
2186        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2187        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2188        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2189        using = expression.args.get("using")
2190
2191        if not on_sql and using:
2192            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2193
2194        this = expression.this
2195        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2196
2197        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2198        if exprs:
2199            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2200
2201        if on_sql:
2202            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2203            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2204            if using:
2205                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2206            else:
2207                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2208        elif not op_sql:
2209            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2210                return f" {this_sql}"
2211
2212            return f", {this_sql}"
2213
2214        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2215            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2216
2217        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2218
2219    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2220        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2221        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2222        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2223
2224    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2225        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2226
2227        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2228        if cross_apply is True:
2229            op = "INNER JOIN "
2230        elif cross_apply is False:
2231            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2232        else:
2233            op = ""
2234
2235        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2236
2237    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2239
2240        if expression.args.get("view"):
2241            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2242            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2243            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2244            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2245            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2246            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2247
2248        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2249        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2250        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2251
2252    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2253        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2254
2255        args = [
2256            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2257            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2258            if e
2259        ]
2260
2261        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2262        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2263        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2264        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2265
2266        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2267
2268    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2270        value = expression.expression
2271        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2272        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2273        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2274        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2275
2276    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2277        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2278        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2280        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2281        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2282        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2283        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2284        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2285
2286    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2287        expressions = (
2288            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2289        )
2290        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2291        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2292
2293    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2294        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2295
2296    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2297        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2298            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2299            return ""
2300
2301        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2302        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2303        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2304        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2305
2306        if wait is not None:
2307            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2308                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2309            else:
2310                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2311
2312        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2313
2314    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2315        text = expression.this or ""
2316        if expression.is_string:
2317            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2318        return text
2319
2320    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2321        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2322            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2323            text = "".join(
2324                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2325            )
2326
2327        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2328            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2329        )
2330
2331    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2332        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2333        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2334        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2335        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2336        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2337        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2338        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2339        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2340        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2341        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2342        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2343
2344    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2345        return "NULL"
2346
2347    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2348        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2349
2350    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2352        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2353        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2354        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2355
2356    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2357        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2358        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2359        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2360        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2361        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2362        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2363        interpolated_values = [
2364            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2365            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2366            else self.sql(e, "this")
2367            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2368        ]
2369        interpolate = (
2370            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2371        )
2372        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2373
2374    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2375        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2376
2377    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2378        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2379
2380    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2381        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2382
2383    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2384        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2385        asc = not desc
2386
2387        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2388        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2389        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2390        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2391        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2392
2393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2394
2395        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2396        nulls_sort_change = ""
2397        if nulls_first and (
2398            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2399        ):
2400            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2401        elif (
2402            nulls_last
2403            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2404            and not nulls_are_last
2405        ):
2406            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2407
2408        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2409        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2410            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2411            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2412                self.unsupported(
2413                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2414                )
2415                nulls_sort_change = ""
2416            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2417                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2418                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2419            ):
2420                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2421                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2422                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2423
2424                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2425                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2426                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2427                    self.unsupported(
2428                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2429                    )
2430                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2431            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2432                if expression.this.is_int:
2433                    self.unsupported(
2434                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2435                    )
2436                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2437                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2438                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2439                nulls_sort_change = ""
2440
2441        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2442        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2443
2444        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2445
2446    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2447        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2448        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2449
2450        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2451
2452        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2453
2454    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2455        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2456        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2457        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2458        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2459        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2460        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2461        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2462        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2463        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2464        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2465        definition_sqls = [
2466            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2467            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2468        ]
2469        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2470        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2471        body = "".join(
2472            (
2473                partition,
2474                order,
2475                measures,
2476                rows,
2477                after,
2478                pattern,
2479                define,
2480            )
2481        )
2482        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2483        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2484        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2485
2486    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2487        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2488
2489        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2490            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2491        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2492            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2493
2494        return csv(
2495            *sqls,
2496            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2497            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2498            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2499            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2500            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2501            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2502            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2503            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2504            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2505            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2506            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2507            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2508            self.options_modifier(expression),
2509            sep="",
2510        )
2511
2512    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2513        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2514        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2515
2516    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2517        return ""
2518
2519    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2520        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2521    ) -> t.List[str]:
2522        return [
2523            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2524            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2525        ]
2526
2527    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2528        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2529        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2530        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2531
2532    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2533        into = expression.args.get("into")
2534        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2535            into.pop()
2536
2537        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2538        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2539        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2540        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2541
2542        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2543        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2544            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2545            limit.pop()
2546        else:
2547            top = ""
2548
2549        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2550
2551        if kind:
2552            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2553                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2554            else:
2555                if kind == "STRUCT":
2556                    expressions = self.expressions(
2557                        sqls=[
2558                            self.sql(
2559                                exp.Struct(
2560                                    expressions=[
2561                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2562                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2563                                        else e
2564                                        for e in expression.expressions
2565                                    ]
2566                                )
2567                            )
2568                        ]
2569                    )
2570                kind = ""
2571
2572        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2573        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2574
2575        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2576        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2577        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2578        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2579        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2580            expression,
2581            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2582            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2583            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2584        )
2585
2586        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2587        if expression.args.get("with"):
2588            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2589            expression.pop_comments()
2590
2591        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2592
2593        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2594            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2595                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2596            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2597                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2598            else:
2599                table_kind = ""
2600            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2601
2602        return sql
2603
2604    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2605        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2606        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2607        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2608
2609    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2610        if expression.expressions:
2611            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2612        return ""
2613
2614    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2615        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2616        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2617        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2618        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2619        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2620        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2621        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2622
2623    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2624        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2625        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2626
2627    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2628        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2629        kind = expression.text("kind")
2630        if kind:
2631            kind = f"{kind}."
2632        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2633
2634    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2635        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2636
2637    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2638        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2639        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2640        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2641        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2642            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2643
2644            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2645            expression.set("sample", None)
2646
2647        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2648        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2649        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2650
2651    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2652        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2653        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2654
2655    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2656        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2657
2658        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2659        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2660
2661        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2662            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2663                alias.append("columns", offset)
2664
2665        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2666            columns = alias.columns
2667            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2668        else:
2669            alias = self.sql(alias)
2670
2671        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2672        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2673            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2674        else:
2675            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2676                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2677            elif offset:
2678                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2679            else:
2680                suffix = alias
2681
2682        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2683
2684    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2685        return ""
2686
2687    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2688        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2689        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2690
2691    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2693        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2694        order = expression.args.get("order")
2695        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2696        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2697        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2698        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2699
2700        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2701
2702        first = expression.args.get("first")
2703        if first is None:
2704            first = ""
2705        else:
2706            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2707
2708        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2709            return f"{this} {alias}"
2710
2711        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2712        return f"{this} ({args})"
2713
2714    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2715        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2716        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2717
2718    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2719        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2720        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2721        end = (
2722            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2723            or "CURRENT ROW"
2724        )
2725        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2726
2727    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2729        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2730        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2731
2732    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2735        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2736        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2737
2738    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2739        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2740    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2741        return apply_index_offset(
2742            expression.this,
2743            expression.expressions,
2744            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2745        )
2746
2747    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2748        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2749        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2750        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2751
2752    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2753        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2754
2755    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2757        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2758            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2759                this = self.wrap(this)
2760            return f"ANY{this}"
2761        return f"ANY {this}"
2762
2763    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2764        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2765
2766    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2768        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2769
2770        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2771            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2772            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2773
2774        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2775
2776        if default:
2777            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2778
2779        statements.append("END")
2780
2781        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2782            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2783
2784        return " ".join(statements)
2785
2786    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2787        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2788        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2789        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2790
2791    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2792        order = expression.args.get("order")
2793        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2794        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2795
2796    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2797        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2798        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2799        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2800
2801    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2802        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2803
2804        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2805            func_name = "LTRIM"
2806        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2807            func_name = "RTRIM"
2808        else:
2809            func_name = "TRIM"
2810
2811        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2812
2813    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2814        args = expression.expressions
2815        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2816            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2817
2818        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2819            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2820
2821        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2822            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2823
2824        return args
2825
2826    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2827        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2828
2829        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2830        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2831            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2832
2833        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2834
2835    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2836        return self.func(
2837            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2838        )
2839
2840    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2841        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2842        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2843
2844    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2845        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2846        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2847        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2848        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2849        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2850        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2851        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2852        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2853        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}"
2854
2855    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2856        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2857        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2858        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2859        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2860
2861    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2862        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2863
2864    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2865        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2866        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2867        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2868
2869    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2870        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2871
2872    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2873        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2874
2875        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2876            path = self.escape_str(path)
2877
2878        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2879            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2880
2881        return path
2882
2883    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2884        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2885            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2886            if not callable(transform):
2887                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2888                return ""
2889
2890            return transform(self, expression)
2891
2892        if isinstance(expression, int):
2893            return str(expression)
2894
2895        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2896            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2897            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2898        else:
2899            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2900            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2901
2902        return escaped
2903
2904    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2905        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2906
2907    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2908        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2909        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2910
2911        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2912        if unique_keys is not None:
2913            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2914        else:
2915            unique_keys = ""
2916
2917        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2918        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2919        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2920        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2921
2922        return self.func(
2923            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2924            *expression.expressions,
2925            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2926        )
2927
2928    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2929        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2930
2931    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2932        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2933        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2934        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2935        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2936        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2937        return self.func(
2938            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2939        )
2940
2941    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2943        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2944        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2945        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2946        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2947        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2948        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2949        return self.func(
2950            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2951            this,
2952            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2953        )
2954
2955    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2956        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2957        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2958        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2959
2960        if nested_schema:
2961            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2962
2963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2964        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2965        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2966        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2967
2968    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2969        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2970
2971    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2973        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2974        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2975        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2976        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2977        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2978        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2979        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2980        return self.func(
2981            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2982        )
2983
2984    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2986        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2987        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2988        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2989        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2990        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2991
2992    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2994        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2995        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2996        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2997        with_ = (
2998            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2999            if expressions
3000            else ""
3001        )
3002        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
3003
3004    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
3005        query = expression.args.get("query")
3006        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
3007        field = expression.args.get("field")
3008        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3009
3010        if query:
3011            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3012        elif unnest:
3013            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3014        elif field:
3015            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3016        else:
3017            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3018
3019        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3020
3021    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3022        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3023
3024    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3025        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3026        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3027            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3028        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3029
3030        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3031            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3032            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3033
3034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3035        if this:
3036            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3037            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3038
3039        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3040
3041    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3042        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3043
3044    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3046        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3047        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3048        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3049        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3050        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3051
3052    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3053        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3054        parent = expression.parent
3055        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3056        return self.func(
3057            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3058        )
3059
3060    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3061        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3062        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3063
3064    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3065        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3066        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3067        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3068        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3069
3070    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3071        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3072
3073    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3074        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3075        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3076        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3077
3078    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3079        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3080
3081        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3082        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3083
3084        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3085            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3086        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3087            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3088
3089        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3090
3091    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3092        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3093
3094    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3096        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3097        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3098
3099    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3101        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3102        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3103
3104    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3105        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3106        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3107        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3108
3109    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3110        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3111
3112    def and_sql(
3113        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3114    ) -> str:
3115        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3116
3117    def or_sql(
3118        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3119    ) -> str:
3120        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3121
3122    def xor_sql(
3123        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3124    ) -> str:
3125        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3126
3127    def connector_sql(
3128        self,
3129        expression: exp.Connector,
3130        op: str,
3131        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3132    ) -> str:
3133        if stack is not None:
3134            if expression.expressions:
3135                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3136            else:
3137                stack.append(expression.right)
3138                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3139                    for comment in expression.comments:
3140                        if comment:
3141                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3142                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3143            return op
3144
3145        stack = [expression]
3146        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3147        ops = set()
3148
3149        while stack:
3150            node = stack.pop()
3151            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3152                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3153            else:
3154                sql = self.sql(node)
3155                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3156                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3157                else:
3158                    sqls.append(sql)
3159
3160        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3161        return sep.join(sqls)
3162
3163    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3164        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3165
3166    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3167        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3168
3169    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3170        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3171
3172    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3173        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3174
3175    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3176        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3177
3178    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3179        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3180
3181    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3182        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3183        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3184        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3185        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3186        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3187        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3188        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3189        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
3190        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"
3191
3192    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3193        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3194        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3195
3196    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3197        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3198            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3199        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3200
3201    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3202        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3203
3204    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3205        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3206        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3207        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3208        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3209        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3210        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3211
3212    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3214        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3215        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3216        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3217        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3218        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3219        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3220        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3221        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3222
3223    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3224        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3225        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3226        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3227        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3228
3229        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3230            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3231
3232        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3233
3234    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3235        return "BEGIN"
3236
3237    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3238        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3239        if chain is not None:
3240            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3241
3242        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3243
3244    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3245        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3246        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3247        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3248
3249    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3251
3252        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3253        if dtype:
3254            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3255            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3256            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3257            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3258            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {self.ALTER_SET_TYPE} {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3259
3260        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3261        if default:
3262            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3263
3264        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3265        if comment:
3266            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3267
3268        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3269        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3270
3271        if not drop and not allow_null:
3272            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3273
3274        if allow_null is not None:
3275            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3276            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3277
3278        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3279
3280    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3282        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3283            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3284        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3285
3286    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3287        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3289        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3290        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3291        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3292
3293    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3294        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3295            # Remove db from tables
3296            expression = expression.transform(
3297                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3298            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3299        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3300        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3301
3302    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3303        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3304        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3305        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3306        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3307
3308    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3309        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3310        return f"SET {exprs}"
3311
3312    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3313        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3314
3315        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3316            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3317        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3318            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3319        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3320            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3321        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3322            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3323        else:
3324            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3325
3326        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3327        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3328        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3329        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3330        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3331        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3332        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3333        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3334
3335        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3336
3337    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3338        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3339            return self.expressions(
3340                expression,
3341                key="actions",
3342                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3343                skip_first=True,
3344            )
3345        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3346
3347    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3348        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3349        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3350        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3351
3352    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3353        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3354
3355    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3356        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3357
3358        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3359            case = exp.case()
3360            for arg in expression.expressions:
3361                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3362            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3363
3364        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3365
3366        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3367        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3368        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3369
3370    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3371        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3372
3373    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3374        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3375
3376    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3377        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3378        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3379        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3380        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3381
3382    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3383        return self.sql(
3384            exp.Cast(
3385                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3386                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3387            )
3388        )
3389
3390    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3391        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3392            return self.func(
3393                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3394            )
3395        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3396
3397    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3398        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3399
3400        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3401            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3402
3403        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3404            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3405                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3406
3407        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3408            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3409                return self.sql(
3410                    exp.cast(
3411                        l / r,
3412                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3413                    )
3414                )
3415
3416        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3417
3418    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
3419        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
3420        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
3421        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))
3422
3423    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3424        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3425
3426    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3427        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3428
3429    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3430        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3431
3432    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3433        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3434
3435    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3436        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3437
3438    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3439        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3440
3441    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3442        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3443
3444    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3445        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3446
3447    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3448        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3449
3450    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3451        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3452
3453    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3454        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3455
3456    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3457        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3458            return self.sql(
3459                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3460            )
3461        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3462
3463    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3464        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3465
3466    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3467        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3468
3469    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3470        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3471
3472    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3473        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3474
3475    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3476        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3477
3478    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3479        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3480
3481    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3482        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3483
3484    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3485        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3486
3487    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3488        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3489
3490    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3491        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3492
3493    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3494        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3495
3496    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3497        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3498
3499    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3500        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3501
3502    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3503        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3504            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3505            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3506
3507        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3508
3509    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3510        this = expression.this
3511        expr = expression.expression
3512
3513        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3514            this, expr = expr, this
3515        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3516            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3517                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3518
3519            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3520
3521        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3522
3523    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3524        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3525        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3526        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3527        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3528        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3529
3530    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3531        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3532        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3533        binary_type = type(expression)
3534
3535        while stack:
3536            node = stack.pop()
3537
3538            if type(node) is binary_type:
3539                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3540                if op_func:
3541                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3542
3543                stack.append(node.right)
3544                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3545                stack.append(node.left)
3546            else:
3547                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3548
3549        return "".join(sqls)
3550
3551    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
3552        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
3553        if to_clause:
3554            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
3555
3556        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3557
3558    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3559        args = []
3560
3561        for key in expression.arg_types:
3562            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3563
3564            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3565                for value in arg_value:
3566                    args.append(value)
3567            elif arg_value is not None:
3568                args.append(arg_value)
3569
3570        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3571            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3572        else:
3573            name = expression.sql_name()
3574
3575        return self.func(name, *args)
3576
3577    def func(
3578        self,
3579        name: str,
3580        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3581        prefix: str = "(",
3582        suffix: str = ")",
3583        normalize: bool = True,
3584    ) -> str:
3585        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3586        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3587
3588    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3589        arg_sqls = tuple(
3590            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3591        )
3592        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3593            return self.indent(
3594                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3595            )
3596        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3597
3598    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3599        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3600
3601    def format_time(
3602        self,
3603        expression: exp.Expression,
3604        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3605        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3606    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3607        return format_time(
3608            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3609            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3610            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3611        )
3612
3613    def expressions(
3614        self,
3615        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3616        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3617        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3618        flat: bool = False,
3619        indent: bool = True,
3620        skip_first: bool = False,
3621        skip_last: bool = False,
3622        sep: str = ", ",
3623        prefix: str = "",
3624        dynamic: bool = False,
3625        new_line: bool = False,
3626    ) -> str:
3627        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3628
3629        if not expressions:
3630            return ""
3631
3632        if flat:
3633            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3634
3635        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3636        result_sqls = []
3637
3638        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3639            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3640            if not sql:
3641                continue
3642
3643            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3644
3645            if self.pretty:
3646                if self.leading_comma:
3647                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3648                else:
3649                    result_sqls.append(
3650                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3651                    )
3652            else:
3653                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3654
3655        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3656            if new_line:
3657                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3658                result_sqls.append("")
3659            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3660        else:
3661            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3662
3663        return (
3664            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3665            if indent
3666            else result_sql
3667        )
3668
3669    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3670        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3671        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3672        if flat:
3673            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3674        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3675
3676    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3677        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3678        if not property_name:
3679            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3680        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3681
3682    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3683        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3684
3685    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3686        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3687
3688    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3690        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3691        expressions = (
3692            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3693        )
3694        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3695
3696    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3698        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3699        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3700
3701    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3702        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3703
3704    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3705        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3706        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3707        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3708        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3709
3710        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3711        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3712            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3713            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3714            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3715            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3716        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3717            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3718                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3719            else:
3720                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3721        else:
3722            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3723        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3724
3725    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3726        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3727
3728    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3729        table = expression.this
3730        table_alias = ""
3731
3732        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3733        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3734            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3735            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3736
3737        this = self.sql(table)
3738        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3739        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3740        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3741
3742        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3743        if returning:
3744            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3745
3746        sep = self.sep()
3747
3748        return self.prepend_ctes(
3749            expression,
3750            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3751        )
3752
3753    @unsupported_args("format")
3754    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3755        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3756
3757    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3758        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3759            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3760            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3761
3762        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3763        if not fmt:
3764            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3765            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3766
3767        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3768
3769    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3771        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3772        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3773        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3774        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3775
3776    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3777        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3778        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3779        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3780        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3781
3782    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3783        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3784
3785    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3786        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3787
3788    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3789    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3790        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3791
3792    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3793    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3794        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3795        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3796        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3797        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3798        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3799        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3800        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3801
3802    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3803        return ""
3804
3805    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3806        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3807        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3808        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3809        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3810        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3811
3812    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3813        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3814        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3815
3816        if having:
3817            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3818
3819        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3820
3821    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3822        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3823        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3824        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3825        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3826        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3827        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3828        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3829        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3830        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3831        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3832        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3833        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3834        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3835
3836    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3837        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3838        if key_block_size:
3839            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3840
3841        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3842        if using:
3843            return f"USING {using}"
3844
3845        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3846        if parser:
3847            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3848
3849        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3850        if comment:
3851            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3852
3853        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3854        if visible is not None:
3855            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3856
3857        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3858        if engine_attr:
3859            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3860
3861        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3862        if secondary_engine_attr:
3863            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3864
3865        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3866        return ""
3867
3868    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3869        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3870        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3871
3872    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3873        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3874        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3876        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3877        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3878        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3879        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3880        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3881        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3882        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3883        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3884
3885    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3886        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3887            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3888
3889        case = exp.Case().when(
3890            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3891            expression.args["true"],
3892            copy=False,
3893        )
3894        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3895        if else_cond:
3896            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3897
3898        return self.sql(case)
3899
3900    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3902        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3903        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3904        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3905        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3906        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3907
3908    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3909        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3910
3911    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3912        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3913
3914    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3915        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3916        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3917        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3918        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3919        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3920        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3921
3922    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3924        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3925        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3926
3927    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3929        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3930        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3931
3932    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3933        arg = expression.this
3934        if not arg.type:
3935            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3936
3937            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3938
3939        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3940            return self.sql(arg)
3941
3942        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3943        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3944
3945    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3946        this = expression.this
3947        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3948
3949        if time_format:
3950            return self.sql(
3951                exp.cast(
3952                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3953                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
3954                )
3955            )
3956
3957        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3958            return self.sql(this)
3959
3960        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3961
3962    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3963        this = expression.this
3964        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3965            return self.sql(this)
3966
3967        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
3968
3969    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
3970        this = expression.this
3971        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
3972            return self.sql(this)
3973
3974        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
3975
3976    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3977        this = expression.this
3978        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3979
3980        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3981            return self.sql(
3982                exp.cast(
3983                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3984                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3985                )
3986            )
3987
3988        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3989            return self.sql(this)
3990
3991        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3992
3993    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3994        return self.sql(
3995            exp.func(
3996                "DATEDIFF",
3997                expression.this,
3998                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3999                "day",
4000            )
4001        )
4002
4003    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
4004        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
4005            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4006
4007        unit = expression.text("unit")
4008        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
4009            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
4010
4011        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
4012
4013    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
4014        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
4015
4016        return self.func(
4017            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
4018        )
4019
4020    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
4021        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
4022            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
4023            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
4024            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
4025            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
4026
4027        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
4028
4029        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
4030        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
4031            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4032
4033        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4034
4035    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4036        expression.set(
4037            "expressions",
4038            [
4039                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4040                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4041                else e
4042                for e in expression.expressions
4043            ],
4044        )
4045
4046        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4047
4048    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4049        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4050        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4051
4052        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4053
4054    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4055        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4056        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4057
4058        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4059
4060        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4061        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4062
4063        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4064        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4065
4066        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4067        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4068
4069        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4070        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4071
4072        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4073
4074    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4075    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4076    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4077        to = expression.this
4078        value = expression.expression
4079        style = expression.args.get("style")
4080        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4081        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4082
4083        if not to or not value:
4084            return ""
4085
4086        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4087        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4088            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4089
4090        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4091        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4092
4093        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4094        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4095            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4096
4097            style_value = style.name
4098            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4099            if not converted_style:
4100                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4101
4102            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4103
4104            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4105                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4106            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4107                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4108            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4109                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4110            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4111                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4112
4113        if not transformed:
4114            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4115
4116        return self.sql(transformed)
4117
4118    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4119        this = expression.this
4120        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4121            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4122            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4123
4124        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4125            return f".{this}"
4126
4127        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4128        return (
4129            f"[{this}]"
4130            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4131            else f".{this}"
4132        )
4133
4134    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4135        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4136        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4137
4138    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4139        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4140            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4141
4142            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4143
4144        return expression
4145
4146    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4147        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4148            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4149            mods = sorted(
4150                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4151                key=lambda x: 0
4152                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4153                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4154            )
4155
4156            if mods:
4157                mod = mods[0]
4158                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4159                this.meta["inline"] = True
4160                mod.this.replace(this)
4161                return self.sql(expression.this)
4162
4163            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4164
4165            if agg_func:
4166                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4167
4168        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4169
4170    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4171        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4172        if self.pretty:
4173            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4174        return string
4175
4176    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4177        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4178
4179        if expression.expressions:
4180            upper = option.upper()
4181
4182            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4183            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4184
4185            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4186            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4187            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4188            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4189
4190        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4191
4192        if not value:
4193            return option
4194
4195        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4196
4197        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4198
4199    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4200        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4201        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4202            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4203            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4204            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4205        else:
4206            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4207            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4208            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4209
4210        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4211        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4212
4213        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4214        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4215
4216        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4217        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4218
4219        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4220        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4221
4222        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4223
4224    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4226        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4227
4228        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4229        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4230        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4231        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4232
4233        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4234        params = self.expressions(
4235            expression,
4236            key="params",
4237            sep=sep,
4238            new_line=True,
4239            skip_last=True,
4240            skip_first=True,
4241            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4242        )
4243
4244        if params:
4245            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4246                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4247            elif not self.pretty:
4248                params = f" {params}"
4249
4250        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4251
4252    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4253        return ""
4254
4255    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4256        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4257        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4258        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4259        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4260        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4261
4262        if filter_col or retention_period:
4263            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4264
4265        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4266
4267    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4268        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4269    ) -> str:
4270        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4271        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4272        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4273        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4274
4275    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4277        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4278        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4279
4280    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4281        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4282
4283    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4285        expr = expression.expression
4286
4287        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4288            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4289            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4290        else:
4291            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4292
4293        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4294
4295    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4296        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4297            return self.sql(expression.this)
4298
4299        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4300
4301    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4302        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4303        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4304
4305        if lower and upper:
4306            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4307        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4308
4309    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4310        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4311        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4312        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4313        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4314        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4315        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4316
4317        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4318
4319    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4320        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4321
4322        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4323        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4324            fill_pattern = "' '"
4325
4326        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4327
4328    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4329        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4330        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4331
4332    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4333        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4334
4335        parent = expression.parent
4336        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4337            parent = parent.parent
4338
4339        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4340            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4341
4342        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4343            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4344
4345        return self.sql(generate_series)
4346
4347    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4348        exprs = expression.expressions
4349        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4350            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4351        else:
4352            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4353
4354        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4355
4356    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4357        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4358            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4359
4360        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4361        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4362        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4363
4364        if source_tz and timestamp:
4365            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4366                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4367            )
4368
4369        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4370
4371        return self.sql(expr)
4372
4373    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4375        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4376
4377        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4378
4379        if _with is None:
4380            with_sql = ""
4381        elif not _with:
4382            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4383        else:
4384            with_sql = " WITH"
4385
4386        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4387
4388        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4389
4390    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4391        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4392            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4393
4394        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4395        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4396        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4397
4398        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4399        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4400
4401        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4402
4403    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4404        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4405        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4406        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4407        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4408        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4409
4410    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4411        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4412        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4413        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4414        return res
4415
4416    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4417        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4418        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4419        empty = (
4420            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4421            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4422            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4423        )
4424
4425        error = expression.args.get("error")
4426        error = (
4427            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4428            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4429            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4430        )
4431
4432        if error and empty:
4433            error = (
4434                f"{empty} {error}"
4435                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4436                else f"{error} {empty}"
4437            )
4438            empty = ""
4439
4440        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4441
4442        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4443
4444    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
4445        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
4446        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"
4447
4448    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4450        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4451
4452        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4453        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4454
4455        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4456        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4457
4458        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4459
4460        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4461
4462    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4463        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4464
4465        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4466        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4467        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4468            parent = expression.parent
4469            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4470                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4471                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4472            else:
4473                this = expression.this
4474                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4475                if this.find(exp.Column):
4476                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4477                    this_sql = (
4478                        self.expressions(this)
4479                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4480                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4481                    )
4482
4483                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4484
4485        return array_agg
4486
4487    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4488        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4489        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4490
4491        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4492
4493    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4494        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4495
4496        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4497        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4498
4499        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4500        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4501
4502        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4503
4504        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4505
4506        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4507
4508    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4509        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4510        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4511        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4512
4513        return f"{this}{columns}"
4514
4515    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4517
4518        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4519        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4520
4521        return f"{kind}{this}"
4522
4523    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4524        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4525        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4526            func = f"*{func}"
4527
4528        return func
4529
4530    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4531        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4532        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4533        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4534        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4535        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4536
4537        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4538
4539    @unsupported_args("format")
4540    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4541        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4542
4543    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4544        this = expression.this
4545        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4546
4547        if zone:
4548            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4549            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4550            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4551            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4552                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4553            )
4554
4555        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4556
4557    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4558        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4559            return self.sql(
4560                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4561            )
4562
4563        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4564
4565    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4566        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4567        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4568        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4569        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4570
4571    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4572        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4573            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4574
4575        start_ts = exp.cast(
4576            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4577        )
4578
4579        return self.sql(
4580            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4581        )
4582
4583    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4584        dim = expression.expression
4585
4586        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4587        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4588            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4589                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4590            dim = None
4591
4592        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4593        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4594            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4595
4596        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4597
4598    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4600        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4601        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4602        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4603
4604        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4605
4606    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4607        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4608        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4609
4610        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4611
4612    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4614        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4615        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4616        return f"{this}{value}"
4617
4618    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4619        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4620        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4621            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4622
4623        return self.func(
4624            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4625            this_sql,
4626            expression.args.get("time"),
4627            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4628            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4629        )
4630
4631    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4632        return (
4633            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4634        )
4635
4636    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4637        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4638        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4639
4640        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4641        if properties:
4642            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4643
4644        return encode
4645
4646    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4648        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4649
4650        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4651        if column_def:
4652            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4653
4654        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4655        if alias:
4656            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4657
4658        return include
4659
4660    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4661        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4662        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4663
4664    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4665        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4666        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4667        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4668
4669    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4670        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4671    ) -> str:
4672        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4673        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4674
4675        every = expression.args["every"]
4676        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4677            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4678
4679        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4680
4681    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4682        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4683        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4684
4685        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4686
4687    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
4688        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4689        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
4690        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
4691
4692    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
4693        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4694        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4695        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4697        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4698        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4699        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
4700        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
4701
4702    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
4703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4704        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4705        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4706        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4707        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
4708        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
4709        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
4710
4711    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
4712        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4713        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4714        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
4715
4716    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
4717        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4718        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
4719
4720    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
4721        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4722        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4723        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4724        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4725        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
4726
4727    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
4728        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4729        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4730        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4731        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4733        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4734        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
4735        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
4736        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
4737        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
4738        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4739        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4740        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4741        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4742        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
4743
4744    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4745        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4746        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
4747        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
4748        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4749        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4750        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4751        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4752        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4753        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
4754
4755    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
4756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4757        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"
4758
4759    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
4760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4761        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
4762        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
4763        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
4764        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"