sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 118        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
 119        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 120        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 121        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 124        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 125        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 126        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 130        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 131        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 135        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 138        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 139        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 141        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 142        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 143        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 144        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 145        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 146        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 147        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 148        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 149        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 150        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 151        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 152        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 153        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 154        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 155        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 156        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 157        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 158        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 159        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 160        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 161        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 162        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 163        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 164        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 165        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 166        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 169        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 173        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 175        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 177            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 178        ),
 179        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 180        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 181        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 183        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 184        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 185        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 187        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 188        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 189        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 190        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 192        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 193        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 194        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 195        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 196        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 197        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 198        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 199        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 200        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 201        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 202        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 203        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: lambda self, e: f"USING TEMPLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 205        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 206        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 207        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 208        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 209        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 210        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 211        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 212        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 213        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 214        exp.ForceProperty: lambda *_: "FORCE",
 215    }
 216
 217    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 218    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 219    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 220    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 221
 222    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 223    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 224    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 225
 226    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 227    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 228
 229    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 230    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 231
 232    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 233    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 234
 235    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 236    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 237
 238    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 239    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 240
 241    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 242    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 243
 244    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 245    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 246
 247    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 248    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 249
 250    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 251    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 252
 253    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 254    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 255
 256    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 257    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 258
 259    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 260    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 261
 262    # Whether join hints should be generated
 263    JOIN_HINTS = True
 264
 265    # Whether table hints should be generated
 266    TABLE_HINTS = True
 267
 268    # Whether query hints should be generated
 269    QUERY_HINTS = True
 270
 271    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 272    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 273
 274    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 275    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 276
 277    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 278    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 279
 280    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 281    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 282
 283    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 284    RETURNING_END = True
 285
 286    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 287    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 288
 289    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 290    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 291
 292    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 293    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 294
 295    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 296    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 297
 298    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 299    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 300    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 301    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 302
 303    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 304    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 305
 306    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 307    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 308
 309    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 310    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 311
 312    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 313    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 314
 315    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 316    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 317
 318    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 319    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 320
 321    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 322    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 323
 324    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 325    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 326
 327    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 328    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 329
 330    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 331    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 332
 333    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 334    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 335
 336    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 337    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 338
 339    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 340    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 341
 342    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 343    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 344
 345    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 346    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 347
 348    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 349    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 350
 351    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 352    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 353
 354    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 355    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 356
 357    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 358    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 359
 360    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 361    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 362
 363    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 364    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 365
 366    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 367    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 368
 369    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 370    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 371
 372    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 373    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 374
 375    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 376    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 377
 378    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 379    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 380    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 381
 382    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 383    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 384
 385    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 386    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 387
 388    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 389    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 390
 391    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 392    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 393
 394    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 395    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 396
 397    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 398    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 399
 400    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 401    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 402    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 403    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 404
 405    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 406    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 407
 408    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 409    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 410
 411    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 412    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 413
 414    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 415    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 416
 417    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 418    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 419
 420    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 421    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 422
 423    # The HEX function name
 424    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 425
 426    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 427    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 428
 429    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 430    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 431
 432    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 433    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 434
 435    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 436    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 437
 438    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 439    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 440
 441    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 442    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 443
 444    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 445    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 446
 447    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 448    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 449
 450    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 451    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 452
 453    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 454    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 455
 456    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
 457    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"
 458
 459    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 460    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 461    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 462    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 463    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 464
 465    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 466        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 467        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 468        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 469        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 470        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 471        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 472        exp.DataType.Type.BLOB: "VARBINARY",
 473        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 474        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 475        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 476        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 477        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 478        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 479    }
 480
 481    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 482        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 483        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 484        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 485        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 486        "DAYS": "DAY",
 487        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 488        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 489        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 490        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 491    }
 492
 493    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 494        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 495        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 496        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 497        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 498            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 499            if e.args.get("windows")
 500            else ""
 501        ),
 502        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 503    }
 504
 505    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 506
 507    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 508
 509    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 510    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 511
 512    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 513
 514    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 515        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 517        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 521        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 523        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 526        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 527        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 530        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 532        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 535        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 539        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 542        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 543        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 544        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 545        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 546        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 547        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 549        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 552        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 553        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 558        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 559        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 560        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 561        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 562        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 564        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 567        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 570        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 572        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 575        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 576        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 578        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 580        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 581        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 582        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 583        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 584        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 585        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 586        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 588        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 589        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 590        exp.StorageHandlerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 591        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 592        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 593        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 594        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 595        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 596        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 597        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 598        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 599        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 600        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 601        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 602        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 603        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 604        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 605        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 606        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 607        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 608        exp.ForceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 609    }
 610
 611    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 612    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 613
 614    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 615    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 616        exp.Command,
 617        exp.Create,
 618        exp.Describe,
 619        exp.Delete,
 620        exp.Drop,
 621        exp.From,
 622        exp.Insert,
 623        exp.Join,
 624        exp.MultitableInserts,
 625        exp.Select,
 626        exp.SetOperation,
 627        exp.Update,
 628        exp.Where,
 629        exp.With,
 630    )
 631
 632    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 633    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 634        exp.Binary,
 635        exp.SetOperation,
 636    )
 637
 638    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 639    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 640        exp.Column,
 641        exp.Literal,
 642        exp.Neg,
 643        exp.Paren,
 644    )
 645
 646    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 647        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 648        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 649        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 650        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 651    }
 652
 653    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 654    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 655
 656    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 657
 658    __slots__ = (
 659        "pretty",
 660        "identify",
 661        "normalize",
 662        "pad",
 663        "_indent",
 664        "normalize_functions",
 665        "unsupported_level",
 666        "max_unsupported",
 667        "leading_comma",
 668        "max_text_width",
 669        "comments",
 670        "dialect",
 671        "unsupported_messages",
 672        "_escaped_quote_end",
 673        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 674        "_next_name",
 675        "_identifier_start",
 676        "_identifier_end",
 677        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 678    )
 679
 680    def __init__(
 681        self,
 682        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 683        identify: str | bool = False,
 684        normalize: bool = False,
 685        pad: int = 2,
 686        indent: int = 2,
 687        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 688        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 689        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 690        leading_comma: bool = False,
 691        max_text_width: int = 80,
 692        comments: bool = True,
 693        dialect: DialectType = None,
 694    ):
 695        import sqlglot
 696        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 697
 698        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 699        self.identify = identify
 700        self.normalize = normalize
 701        self.pad = pad
 702        self._indent = indent
 703        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 704        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 705        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 706        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 707        self.comments = comments
 708        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 709
 710        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 711        self.normalize_functions = (
 712            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 713        )
 714
 715        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 716        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 717            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 718        )
 719        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 720
 721        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 722
 723        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 724        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 725
 726        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 727
 728    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 729        """
 730        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 731
 732        Args:
 733            expression: The syntax tree.
 734            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 735                it is safer to copy.
 736
 737        Returns:
 738            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 739        """
 740        if copy:
 741            expression = expression.copy()
 742
 743        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 744
 745        self.unsupported_messages = []
 746        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 747
 748        if self.pretty:
 749            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 750
 751        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 752            return sql
 753
 754        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 755            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 756                logger.warning(msg)
 757        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 758            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 759
 760        return sql
 761
 762    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 763        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 764        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 765
 766        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 767            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 768
 769            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 770
 771        return expression
 772
 773    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 774        if (
 775            not expression.parent
 776            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 777            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 778        ):
 779            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 780
 781            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 782        return expression
 783
 784    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 785        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 786            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 787        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 788
 789    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 790        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 791
 792    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 793        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 794
 795    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 796        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 797        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 798        return comment
 799
 800    def maybe_comment(
 801        self,
 802        sql: str,
 803        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 804        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 805        separated: bool = False,
 806    ) -> str:
 807        comments = (
 808            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 809            if self.comments
 810            else None
 811        )
 812
 813        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 814            return sql
 815
 816        comments_sql = " ".join(
 817            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 818        )
 819
 820        if not comments_sql:
 821            return sql
 822
 823        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 824
 825        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 826            return (
 827                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 828                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 829                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 830            )
 831
 832        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 833
 834    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 835        this_sql = (
 836            self.sql(expression)
 837            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 838            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 839        )
 840        if not this_sql:
 841            return "()"
 842
 843        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 844        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 845
 846    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 847        original = self.identify
 848        self.identify = False
 849        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 850        self.identify = original
 851        return result
 852
 853    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 854        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 855            return name.upper()
 856        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 857            return name.lower()
 858        return name
 859
 860    def indent(
 861        self,
 862        sql: str,
 863        level: int = 0,
 864        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 865        skip_first: bool = False,
 866        skip_last: bool = False,
 867    ) -> str:
 868        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 869            return sql
 870
 871        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 872        lines = sql.split("\n")
 873
 874        return "\n".join(
 875            (
 876                line
 877                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 878                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 879            )
 880            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 881        )
 882
 883    def sql(
 884        self,
 885        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 886        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 887        comment: bool = True,
 888    ) -> str:
 889        if not expression:
 890            return ""
 891
 892        if isinstance(expression, str):
 893            return expression
 894
 895        if key:
 896            value = expression.args.get(key)
 897            if value:
 898                return self.sql(value)
 899            return ""
 900
 901        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 902
 903        if callable(transform):
 904            sql = transform(self, expression)
 905        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 906            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 907
 908            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 909                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 910            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 911                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 912            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 913                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 914            else:
 915                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 916        else:
 917            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 918
 919        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 920
 921    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 922        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 923        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 924        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 925
 926    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 927        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 928        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 929        options = expression.args.get("options")
 930        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 931        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 932        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 933        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 934        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 935
 936    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 937        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 938            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 939        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 940        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 941
 942    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 943        return ".".join(
 944            self.sql(part)
 945            for part in (
 946                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 947                expression.args.get("db"),
 948                expression.args.get("table"),
 949                expression.args.get("this"),
 950            )
 951            if part
 952        )
 953
 954    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 955        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 956
 957        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 958            join_mark = ""
 959            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 960
 961        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 962
 963    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 965        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 966        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 967        return f"{position}{this}"
 968
 969    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 970        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 971        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 972        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 973        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 974        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 975        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 976        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 977        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 978
 979        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 980            kind = ""
 981
 982        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 983
 984    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 986        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 987        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 988
 989    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 991        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 992            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 993        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 994            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 995        else:
 996            persisted = ""
 997        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 998
 999    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
1000        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
1001
1002    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
1003        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1004            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
1005        else:
1006            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1007
1008        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
1009
1010    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
1011        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
1012    ) -> str:
1013        this = ""
1014        if expression.this is not None:
1015            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1016            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1017
1018        start = expression.args.get("start")
1019        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1020        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1021        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1022        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1023        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1024        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1025        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1026        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1027        cycle_sql = ""
1028
1029        if cycle is not None:
1030            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1031            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1032
1033        sequence_opts = ""
1034        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1035            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1036            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1037
1038        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1039        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1040
1041        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1042
1043    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1044        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1045    ) -> str:
1046        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1047        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1048        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1049
1050    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1051        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1052    ) -> str:
1053        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1054
1055    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1056        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1057
1058    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1059        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1060
1061    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1062        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1063        if desc is not None:
1064            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1065        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1066
1067    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1068        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1069        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1070        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1071        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1072        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1073        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1074        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1075        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1076
1077    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1078        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1079
1080    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1081        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1082        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1083        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1084        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1085
1086        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1087
1088        properties_sql = ""
1089        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1090            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1091        ):
1092            properties_sql = self.sql(
1093                exp.Properties(
1094                    expressions=[
1095                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1096                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1097                    ]
1098                )
1099            )
1100
1101            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1102                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1103            elif not self.pretty:
1104                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1105                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1106
1107        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1108        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1109
1110        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1111        if expression_sql:
1112            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1113
1114            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1115                postalias_props_sql = ""
1116                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1117                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1118                        exp.Properties(
1119                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1120                        ),
1121                        wrapped=False,
1122                    )
1123                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1124                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1125
1126        postindex_props_sql = ""
1127        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1128            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1129                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1130                wrapped=False,
1131                prefix=" ",
1132            )
1133
1134        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1135        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1136        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1137
1138        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1139        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1140        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1141
1142        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1143        if clustered is None:
1144            clustered_sql = ""
1145        elif clustered:
1146            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1147        else:
1148            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1149
1150        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1151        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1152            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1153                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1154                sep=" ",
1155                prefix=" ",
1156                wrapped=False,
1157            )
1158
1159        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1160
1161        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1162        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1163            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1164                exp.Properties(
1165                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1166                ),
1167                sep=" ",
1168                prefix=" ",
1169                wrapped=False,
1170            )
1171
1172        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1173        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1174        no_schema_binding = (
1175            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1176        )
1177
1178        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1179        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1180
1181        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1182            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1183        else:
1184            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1185
1186        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1187        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1188
1189    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1190        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1191        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1192        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1193        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1194        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1195        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1196        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1197        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1198        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1199        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1200
1201        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1202        if cache is None:
1203            cache_str = ""
1204        elif cache is True:
1205            cache_str = " CACHE"
1206        else:
1207            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1208
1209        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1210        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1211
1212        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1213
1214    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1216        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1217        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1218        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1219
1220    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1221        style = expression.args.get("style")
1222        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1223        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1224        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1225        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1226        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1227
1228        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1229
1230    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1231        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1232        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1233
1234    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1235        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1236        if with_:
1237            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1238        return sql
1239
1240    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1241        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1242        recursive = (
1243            "RECURSIVE "
1244            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1245            else ""
1246        )
1247        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
1248        search = f" {search}" if search else ""
1249
1250        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"
1251
1252    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1253        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1254        if alias:
1255            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1256
1257        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1258
1259        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1260        if materialized is False:
1261            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1262        elif materialized:
1263            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1264
1265        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1266
1267    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1268        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1269        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1270        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1271
1272        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1273            columns = ""
1274            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1275
1276        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1277            alias = self._next_name()
1278
1279        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1280
1281    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1283        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1284            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1285        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1286
1287    def hexstring_sql(
1288        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
1289    ) -> str:
1290        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1291        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")
1292
1293        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
1294            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
1295        ):
1296            # Integer representation will be returned if:
1297            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
1298            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
1299            return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1300
1301        if not is_integer_type:
1302            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
1303            if binary_function_repr:
1304                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
1305                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
1306            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
1307                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
1308                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")
1309
1310        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1311
1312    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1314        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1315            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1316        return this
1317
1318    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1319        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1320        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1321
1322        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1323            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1324            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1325        else:
1326            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1327            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1328
1329        if escape:
1330            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1331            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1332        else:
1333            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1334            escape_sql = ""
1335
1336        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1337            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1338
1339        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1340
1341    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1342        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1343        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1344
1345    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1347        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1348        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1349        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1350
1351    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1352        nested = ""
1353        values = ""
1354        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1355
1356        type_value = expression.this
1357        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1358            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1359        else:
1360            type_sql = (
1361                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1362                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1363                else type_value
1364            )
1365
1366        if interior:
1367            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1368                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1369                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1370                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1371                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1372                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1373            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1374                nested = f" {interior}"
1375            else:
1376                nested = f"({interior})"
1377
1378        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1379        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1380            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1381            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1382        ):
1383            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1384
1385        return type_sql
1386
1387    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1388        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1389        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1390        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1391        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1392
1393    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1395        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1396        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1397        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1398        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1399        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1400        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1401        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1402        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1403        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1404        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1405        if self.RETURNING_END:
1406            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1407        else:
1408            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1409        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1410
1411    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1413        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1414        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1415        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1416        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1417        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1418        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1419        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1420        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1421        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1422        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1423        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1424        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1425        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1426        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1427
1428    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1429        op_type = type(expression)
1430        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1431
1432        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1433        if (
1434            distinct is False
1435            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1436            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1437        ):
1438            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1439
1440        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1441
1442        if distinct is None:
1443            distinct = default_distinct
1444            if distinct is None:
1445                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1446
1447        if distinct is default_distinct:
1448            kind = ""
1449        else:
1450            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1451
1452        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1453        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1454
1455    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1456        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1457            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1458            order = expression.args.get("order")
1459
1460            if limit or order:
1461                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1462                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1463                )
1464
1465                if limit:
1466                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1467                if order:
1468                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1469                return self.sql(select)
1470
1471        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1472        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1473
1474        while stack:
1475            node = stack.pop()
1476
1477            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1478                stack.append(node.expression)
1479                stack.append(
1480                    self.maybe_comment(
1481                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1482                    )
1483                )
1484                stack.append(node.this)
1485            else:
1486                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1487
1488        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1489        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1490        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1491
1492    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1493        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1494        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1495        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1496        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1497        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
1498        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
1499        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"
1500
1501    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
1502        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1503        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
1504        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
1505        if not with_ties and rows:
1506            with_ties = " ONLY"
1507        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"
1508
1509    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1510        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1511            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1512            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1513            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1514
1515        agg = expression.this
1516        agg_arg = agg.this
1517        cond = expression.expression.this
1518        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1519        return self.sql(agg)
1520
1521    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1522        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1523            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1524            return ""
1525
1526        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1527
1528    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1529        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1530        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1531        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1532        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1533        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1534        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1535        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1536        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1537        if include:
1538            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1539        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1540        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1541        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1542        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1543        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1544        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1545
1546        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1547
1548    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1549        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1550        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1551        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1552        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1553        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1554        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1555        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1556
1557        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1558
1559        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1560        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1561
1562    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1563        text = expression.name
1564        lower = text.lower()
1565        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1566        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1567        if (
1568            expression.quoted
1569            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1570            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1571            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1572        ):
1573            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1574        return text
1575
1576    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1577        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1578        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1579            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1580
1581        return text
1582
1583    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1584        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1585        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1586            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1587        return text
1588
1589    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1590        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1591        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1592        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1593        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1594        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1595
1596    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1597        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1598        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1599
1600    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1601        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
1602        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1603
1604    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1605        root_properties = []
1606        with_properties = []
1607
1608        for p in expression.expressions:
1609            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1610            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1611                with_properties.append(p)
1612            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1613                root_properties.append(p)
1614
1615        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1616        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1617
1618        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1619            with_props = " " + with_props
1620
1621        return root_props + with_props
1622
1623    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1624        if properties.expressions:
1625            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1626        return ""
1627
1628    def properties(
1629        self,
1630        properties: exp.Properties,
1631        prefix: str = "",
1632        sep: str = ", ",
1633        suffix: str = "",
1634        wrapped: bool = True,
1635    ) -> str:
1636        if properties.expressions:
1637            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1638            if expressions:
1639                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1640                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1641        return ""
1642
1643    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1644        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1645
1646    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1647        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1648        for p in properties.expressions:
1649            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1650            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1651                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1652            else:
1653                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1654
1655        return properties_locs
1656
1657    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1658        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1659            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1660        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1661
1662    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1663        property_cls = expression.__class__
1664        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1665            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1666
1667        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1668        if not property_name:
1669            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1670
1671        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1672
1673    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1674        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1675            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1676            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1677
1678            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1679            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1680                like = f"({like})"
1681
1682            return like
1683
1684        if expression.expressions:
1685            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1686
1687        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1688        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1689
1690    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1691        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1692        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1693        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1694
1695    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1696        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1697        local = expression.args.get("local")
1698        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1699        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1700        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1701        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1702        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1703
1704    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1705        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1706        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1707        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1708
1709    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1710        if expression.args.get("default"):
1711            property = "DEFAULT"
1712        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1713            property = "ON"
1714        else:
1715            property = "OFF"
1716        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1717
1718    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1719        if expression.args.get("no"):
1720            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1721        if expression.args.get("default"):
1722            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1723
1724        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1725        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1726
1727    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1728        default = expression.args.get("default")
1729        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1730        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1731        if default or minimum or maximum:
1732            if default:
1733                prop = "DEFAULT"
1734            elif minimum:
1735                prop = "MINIMUM"
1736            else:
1737                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1738            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1739        units = expression.args.get("units")
1740        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1741        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1742
1743    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1744        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1745        always = expression.args.get("always")
1746        default = expression.args.get("default")
1747        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1748        never = expression.args.get("never")
1749
1750        if autotemp is not None:
1751            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1752        elif always:
1753            prop = "ALWAYS"
1754        elif default:
1755            prop = "DEFAULT"
1756        elif manual:
1757            prop = "MANUAL"
1758        elif never:
1759            prop = "NEVER"
1760        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1761
1762    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1763        no = expression.args.get("no")
1764        no = " NO" if no else ""
1765        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1766        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1767        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1768        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1769        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1770
1771    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1772        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1773            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1774        if expression.this:
1775            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1776            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1777            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1778
1779        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1780        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1781        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1782
1783    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1785
1786        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1787        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1788            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1789        else:
1790            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1791
1792        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1793
1794    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1795        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1796        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1797        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1798        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1799        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1800        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1801        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1802
1803    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1804        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1805        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1806        statistics_sql = ""
1807        if statistics is not None:
1808            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1809        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1810
1811    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1812        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1813        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1814        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1815        data_consistency = (
1816            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1817        )
1818        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1819        retention_period = (
1820            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1821        )
1822
1823        if this:
1824            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1825        else:
1826            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1827
1828        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1829
1830        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1831
1832    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1833        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1834        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1835
1836        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1837            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1838        else:
1839            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1840
1841        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1842        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1843        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1844        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1845        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1846        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1847        if is_function:
1848            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1849        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1850
1851        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1852        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1853        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1854        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1855        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1856        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1857        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1858        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1859
1860        if self.RETURNING_END:
1861            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1862        else:
1863            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1864
1865        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1866        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1867        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1868        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1869
1870        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1871        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1872
1873        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1874        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1875
1876    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1877        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1878
1879    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1880        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1881        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1883        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1884        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1885
1886    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1887        return expression.name
1888
1889    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1890        return expression.name
1891
1892    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1893        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1894
1895        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1896        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1897
1898        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1899        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1900        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1901
1902        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1903        if expressions:
1904            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1905            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1906
1907        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1908        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1909
1910    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1911        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1912
1913    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1914        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1915        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1916        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1917        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1918        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1919        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1920        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1921        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1922        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1923        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1924        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1925        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1926        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1927
1928    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1929        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1930
1931    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1932        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1933        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1934        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1935        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1936
1937    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1939        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1940        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1941        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1942
1943    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1944        return ".".join(
1945            self.sql(part)
1946            for part in (
1947                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1948                expression.args.get("db"),
1949                expression.args.get("this"),
1950            )
1951            if part is not None
1952        )
1953
1954    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1955        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1956        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1957        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1958        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1959        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1960        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1961        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1962        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1963
1964        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1965        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1966            sample_pre_alias = sample
1967            sample_post_alias = ""
1968        else:
1969            sample_pre_alias = ""
1970            sample_post_alias = sample
1971
1972        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1973        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1974        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1975        joins = self.indent(
1976            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1977        )
1978        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1979
1980        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1981        if file_format:
1982            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1983            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1984            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1985
1986        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1987        if ordinality:
1988            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1989            alias = ""
1990
1991        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1992        if when:
1993            table = f"{table} {when}"
1994
1995        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1996        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1997
1998        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1999        if rows_from:
2000            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
2001
2002        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
2003
2004    def tablefromrows_sql(self, expression: exp.TableFromRows) -> str:
2005        table = self.func("TABLE", expression.this)
2006        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2007        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2008        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2009        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2010        joins = self.indent(
2011            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
2012        )
2013        return f"{table}{alias}{pivots}{sample}{joins}"
2014
2015    def tablesample_sql(
2016        self,
2017        expression: exp.TableSample,
2018        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
2019    ) -> str:
2020        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
2021        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
2022        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
2023        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
2024        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
2025        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
2026        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
2027        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
2028        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
2029
2030        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
2031        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
2032            size = f"{size} ROWS"
2033
2034        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
2035        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
2036            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
2037
2038        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
2039        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
2040            expr = f"({expr})"
2041
2042        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
2043
2044    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
2045        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2046        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
2047
2048        if expression.this:
2049            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2050            if not expressions:
2051                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
2052
2053            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2054            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2055            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2056            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2057            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2058            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2059            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2060
2061        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2062        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2063
2064        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
2065
2066        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2067        if include_nulls is not None:
2068            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2069        else:
2070            nulls = ""
2071
2072        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2073        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2074        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
2075
2076    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2077        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2078        kind = expression.text("kind")
2079        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2080        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2081
2082    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2083        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2084
2085    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2086        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2087        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2088        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2089        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2090        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2091        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2092        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2093        if self.RETURNING_END:
2094            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2095        else:
2096            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2097        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2098        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2099
2100    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2101        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2102
2103        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2104        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2105            args = self.expressions(expression)
2106            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2107            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2108            values = (
2109                f"({values})"
2110                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2111                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2112                else values
2113            )
2114            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2115
2116        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2117        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2118        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2119
2120        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2121
2122        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2123            row = tup.expressions
2124
2125            if i == 0 and column_names:
2126                row = [
2127                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2128                ]
2129
2130            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2131
2132        if self.pretty:
2133            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2134            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2135            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2136            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2137            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2138
2139        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2140        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2141        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2142
2143    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2144        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2145
2146    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2147    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2148        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2149        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2150        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2151
2152    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2153        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2154
2155    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2156        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2157        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2158
2159    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2160        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2161        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2162
2163    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2164        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2165        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2166
2167    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2168        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2169        if group_by_all is True:
2170            modifier = " ALL"
2171        elif group_by_all is False:
2172            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2173        else:
2174            modifier = ""
2175
2176        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2177
2178        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2179        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2180        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2181
2182        groupings = csv(
2183            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2184            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2185            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2186            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2187            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2188        )
2189
2190        if (
2191            expression.expressions
2192            and groupings
2193            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2194        ):
2195            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2196
2197        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2198
2199    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2200        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2201        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2202
2203    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2204        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2205        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2206        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2207        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2208        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2209        return start + connect
2210
2211    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2212        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2213
2214    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2215        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2216            side = None
2217        else:
2218            side = expression.side
2219
2220        op_sql = " ".join(
2221            op
2222            for op in (
2223                expression.method,
2224                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2225                side,
2226                expression.kind,
2227                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2228            )
2229            if op
2230        )
2231        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2232        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2233        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2234        using = expression.args.get("using")
2235
2236        if not on_sql and using:
2237            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2238
2239        this = expression.this
2240        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2241
2242        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2243        if exprs:
2244            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2245
2246        if on_sql:
2247            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2248            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2249            if using:
2250                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2251            else:
2252                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2253        elif not op_sql:
2254            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2255                return f" {this_sql}"
2256
2257            return f", {this_sql}"
2258
2259        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2260            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2261
2262        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2263
2264    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2265        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2266        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2267        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2268
2269    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2270        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2271
2272        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2273        if cross_apply is True:
2274            op = "INNER JOIN "
2275        elif cross_apply is False:
2276            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2277        else:
2278            op = ""
2279
2280        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2281
2282    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2283        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2284
2285        if expression.args.get("view"):
2286            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2287            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2288            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2289            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2290            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2291            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2292
2293        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2294        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2295        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2296
2297    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2299
2300        args = [
2301            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2302            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2303            if e
2304        ]
2305
2306        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2307        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2308        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2309        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
2310        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2311
2312        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"
2313
2314    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2316        value = expression.expression
2317        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2318        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2319        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2320        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2321
2322    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2323        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2324        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2326        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2327        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2328        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2329        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2330        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2331
2332    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2333        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2334        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2335        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2336
2337    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2338        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2339
2340    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2341        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2342            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2343            return ""
2344
2345        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2346        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2347        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2348        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2349
2350        if wait is not None:
2351            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2352                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2353            else:
2354                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2355
2356        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2357
2358    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2359        text = expression.this or ""
2360        if expression.is_string:
2361            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2362        return text
2363
2364    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2365        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2366            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2367            text = "".join(
2368                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2369            )
2370
2371        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2372            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2373        )
2374
2375    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2376        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2377        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2378        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2379        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2380        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2381        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2382        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2383        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2384        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2385        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2386        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2387
2388    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2389        return "NULL"
2390
2391    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2392        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2393
2394    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2396        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2397        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2398        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2399
2400    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2401        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2402        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2403        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2404        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2405        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2406        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2407        interpolated_values = [
2408            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2409            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2410            else self.sql(e, "this")
2411            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2412        ]
2413        interpolate = (
2414            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2415        )
2416        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2417
2418    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2419        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2420
2421    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2422        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2423
2424    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2425        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2426
2427    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2428        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2429        asc = not desc
2430
2431        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2432        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2433        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2434        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2435        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2436
2437        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2438
2439        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2440        nulls_sort_change = ""
2441        if nulls_first and (
2442            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2443        ):
2444            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2445        elif (
2446            nulls_last
2447            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2448            and not nulls_are_last
2449        ):
2450            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2451
2452        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2453        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2454            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2455            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2456                self.unsupported(
2457                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2458                )
2459                nulls_sort_change = ""
2460            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2461                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2462                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2463            ):
2464                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2465                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2466                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2467
2468                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2469                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2470                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2471                    self.unsupported(
2472                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2473                    )
2474                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2475            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2476                if expression.this.is_int:
2477                    self.unsupported(
2478                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2479                    )
2480                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2481                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2482                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2483                nulls_sort_change = ""
2484
2485        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2486        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2487
2488        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2489
2490    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2491        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2492        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2493
2494        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2495
2496        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2497
2498    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2499        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2500        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2501        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2502        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2503        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2504        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2505        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2506        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2507        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2508        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2509        definition_sqls = [
2510            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2511            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2512        ]
2513        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2514        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2515        body = "".join(
2516            (
2517                partition,
2518                order,
2519                measures,
2520                rows,
2521                after,
2522                pattern,
2523                define,
2524            )
2525        )
2526        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2527        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2528        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2529
2530    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2531        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2532
2533        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2534            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2535        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2536            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2537
2538        return csv(
2539            *sqls,
2540            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2541            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2542            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2543            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2544            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2545            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2546            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2547            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2548            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2549            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2550            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2551            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2552            self.options_modifier(expression),
2553            sep="",
2554        )
2555
2556    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2557        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2558        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2559
2560    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2561        return ""
2562
2563    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2564        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2565    ) -> t.List[str]:
2566        return [
2567            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2568            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2569        ]
2570
2571    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2572        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2573        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2574        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2575
2576    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2577        into = expression.args.get("into")
2578        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2579            into.pop()
2580
2581        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2582        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2583        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2584        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2585
2586        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2587        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2588            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2589            limit.pop()
2590        else:
2591            top = ""
2592
2593        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2594
2595        if kind:
2596            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2597                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2598            else:
2599                if kind == "STRUCT":
2600                    expressions = self.expressions(
2601                        sqls=[
2602                            self.sql(
2603                                exp.Struct(
2604                                    expressions=[
2605                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2606                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2607                                        else e
2608                                        for e in expression.expressions
2609                                    ]
2610                                )
2611                            )
2612                        ]
2613                    )
2614                kind = ""
2615
2616        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2617        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2618
2619        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2620        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2621        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2622        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2623        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2624            expression,
2625            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2626            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2627            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2628        )
2629
2630        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2631        if expression.args.get("with"):
2632            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2633            expression.pop_comments()
2634
2635        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2636
2637        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2638            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2639                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2640            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2641                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2642            else:
2643                table_kind = ""
2644            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2645
2646        return sql
2647
2648    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2649        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2650        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2651        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2652
2653    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2654        if expression.expressions:
2655            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2656        return ""
2657
2658    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2659        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2660        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2661        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2662        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2663        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2664        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2665        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2666
2667    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2669        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2670
2671    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2672        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2673        kind = expression.text("kind")
2674        if kind:
2675            kind = f"{kind}."
2676        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2677
2678    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2679        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2680
2681    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2682        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2683        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2684        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2685        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2686            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2687
2688            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2689            expression.set("sample", None)
2690
2691        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2692        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2693        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2694
2695    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2696        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2697        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2698
2699    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2700        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2701
2702        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2703        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2704
2705        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2706            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2707                alias.append("columns", offset)
2708
2709        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2710            columns = alias.columns
2711            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2712        else:
2713            alias = self.sql(alias)
2714
2715        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2716        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2717            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2718        else:
2719            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2720                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2721            elif offset:
2722                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2723            else:
2724                suffix = alias
2725
2726        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2727
2728    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2729        return ""
2730
2731    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2732        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2733        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2734
2735    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2737        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2738        order = expression.args.get("order")
2739        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2740        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2741        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2742        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2743
2744        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2745
2746        first = expression.args.get("first")
2747        if first is None:
2748            first = ""
2749        else:
2750            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2751
2752        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2753            return f"{this} {alias}"
2754
2755        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2756        return f"{this} ({args})"
2757
2758    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2759        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2760        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2761
2762    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2763        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2764        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2765        end = (
2766            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2767            or "CURRENT ROW"
2768        )
2769        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2770
2771    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2772        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2773        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2774        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2775
2776    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2777        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2778        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2779        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2780        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2781
2782    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2783        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2784    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2785        return apply_index_offset(
2786            expression.this,
2787            expression.expressions,
2788            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2789        )
2790
2791    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2792        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2793        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2794        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2795
2796    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2797        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2798
2799    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2801        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2802            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2803                this = self.wrap(this)
2804            return f"ANY{this}"
2805        return f"ANY {this}"
2806
2807    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2808        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2809
2810    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2812        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2813
2814        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2815            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2816            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2817
2818        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2819
2820        if default:
2821            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2822
2823        statements.append("END")
2824
2825        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2826            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2827
2828        return " ".join(statements)
2829
2830    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2832        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2833        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2834
2835    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2836        order = expression.args.get("order")
2837        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2838        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2839
2840    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2841        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2842        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2843        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2844
2845    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2846        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2847
2848        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2849            func_name = "LTRIM"
2850        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2851            func_name = "RTRIM"
2852        else:
2853            func_name = "TRIM"
2854
2855        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2856
2857    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2858        args = expression.expressions
2859        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2860            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2861
2862        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2863            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2864
2865        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2866            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2867
2868        return args
2869
2870    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2871        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2872
2873        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2874        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2875            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2876
2877        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2878
2879    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2880        return self.func(
2881            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2882        )
2883
2884    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2885        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2886        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2887
2888    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2889        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2890        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2891        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2892        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2893        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2894        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2895        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2896        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2897        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}"
2898
2899    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2900        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2901        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2902        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2903        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2904
2905    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2906        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2907
2908    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2909        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2910        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2911        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2912
2913    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2914        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2915
2916    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2917        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2918
2919        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2920            path = self.escape_str(path)
2921
2922        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2923            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2924
2925        return path
2926
2927    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2928        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2929            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2930            if not callable(transform):
2931                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2932                return ""
2933
2934            return transform(self, expression)
2935
2936        if isinstance(expression, int):
2937            return str(expression)
2938
2939        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2940            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2941            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2942        else:
2943            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2944            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2945
2946        return escaped
2947
2948    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2949        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2950
2951    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2952        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2953        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2954
2955        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2956        if unique_keys is not None:
2957            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2958        else:
2959            unique_keys = ""
2960
2961        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2962        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2963        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2964        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2965
2966        return self.func(
2967            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2968            *expression.expressions,
2969            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2970        )
2971
2972    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2973        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2974
2975    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2976        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2977        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2978        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2979        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2980        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2981        return self.func(
2982            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2983        )
2984
2985    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2987        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2988        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2989        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2990        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2991        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2992        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2993        return self.func(
2994            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2995            this,
2996            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2997        )
2998
2999    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
3000        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3001        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
3002        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
3003
3004        if nested_schema:
3005            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
3006
3007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3008        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3009        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3010        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
3011
3012    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
3013        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
3014
3015    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
3016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3017        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3018        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3019        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
3020        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
3021        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
3022        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
3023        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3024        return self.func(
3025            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
3026        )
3027
3028    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
3029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3030        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3031        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3032        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
3033        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
3034        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
3035
3036    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
3037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3038        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3039        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3040        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3041        with_ = (
3042            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3043            if expressions
3044            else ""
3045        )
3046        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
3047
3048    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
3049        query = expression.args.get("query")
3050        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
3051        field = expression.args.get("field")
3052        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3053
3054        if query:
3055            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3056        elif unnest:
3057            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3058        elif field:
3059            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3060        else:
3061            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
3062
3063        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3064
3065    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3066        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3067
3068    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3069        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3070        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3071            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3072        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3073
3074        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3075            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3076            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3077
3078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3079        if this:
3080            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3081            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3082
3083        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3084
3085    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3086        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3087
3088    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3090        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3091        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3092        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3093        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3094        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3095
3096    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3097        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3098        parent = expression.parent
3099        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3100        return self.func(
3101            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3102        )
3103
3104    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3105        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3106        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3107
3108    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3109        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3110        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3111        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3112        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3113
3114    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3115        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3116
3117    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3118        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3119        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3120        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3121
3122    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3123        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3124
3125        parent = expression.parent
3126        pivot = parent and parent.parent
3127
3128        if isinstance(pivot, exp.Pivot) and pivot.unpivot:
3129            identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3130            literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3131
3132            if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3133                alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3134            elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3135                alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3136
3137        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3138
3139    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3140        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3141
3142    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3143        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3144        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3145        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3146
3147    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3148        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3149        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3150        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3151
3152    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3154        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3155        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3156
3157    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3158        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3159
3160    def and_sql(
3161        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3162    ) -> str:
3163        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3164
3165    def or_sql(
3166        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3167    ) -> str:
3168        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3169
3170    def xor_sql(
3171        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3172    ) -> str:
3173        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3174
3175    def connector_sql(
3176        self,
3177        expression: exp.Connector,
3178        op: str,
3179        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3180    ) -> str:
3181        if stack is not None:
3182            if expression.expressions:
3183                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3184            else:
3185                stack.append(expression.right)
3186                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3187                    for comment in expression.comments:
3188                        if comment:
3189                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3190                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3191            return op
3192
3193        stack = [expression]
3194        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3195        ops = set()
3196
3197        while stack:
3198            node = stack.pop()
3199            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3200                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3201            else:
3202                sql = self.sql(node)
3203                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3204                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3205                else:
3206                    sqls.append(sql)
3207
3208        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3209        return sep.join(sqls)
3210
3211    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3212        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3213
3214    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3215        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3216
3217    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3218        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3219
3220    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3221        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3222
3223    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3224        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3225
3226    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3227        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3228
3229    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3230        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3231        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3232        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3233        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3234        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3235        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3236        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3237        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
3238        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"
3239
3240    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3241        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3242        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3243
3244    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3245        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3246            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3247        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3248
3249    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3250        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3251
3252    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3253        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3254        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3255        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3256        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3257        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3258        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3259
3260    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3262        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3263        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3264        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3265        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3266        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3267        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3268        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3269        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3270
3271    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3272        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3273        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3274        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3275        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3276
3277        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3278            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3279
3280        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3281
3282    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3283        return "BEGIN"
3284
3285    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3286        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3287        if chain is not None:
3288            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3289
3290        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3291
3292    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3293        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3294        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3295        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3296
3297    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3299
3300        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3301        if dtype:
3302            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3303            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3304            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3305            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3306            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {self.ALTER_SET_TYPE} {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3307
3308        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3309        if default:
3310            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3311
3312        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3313        if comment:
3314            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3315
3316        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3317        if visible:
3318            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET {visible}"
3319
3320        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3321        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3322
3323        if not drop and not allow_null:
3324            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3325
3326        if allow_null is not None:
3327            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3328            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3329
3330        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3331
3332    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
3333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3334
3335        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3336        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3337
3338        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"
3339
3340    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3342        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3343            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3344        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3345
3346    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3347        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3348        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3349        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3350        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3351        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3352
3353    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3354        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3355            # Remove db from tables
3356            expression = expression.transform(
3357                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3358            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3360        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3361
3362    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3363        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3364        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3365        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3366        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3367
3368    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3369        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3370        return f"SET {exprs}"
3371
3372    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3373        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3374
3375        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3376            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3377        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3378            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3379        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3380            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3381        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3382            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3383        else:
3384            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3385
3386        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3387        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3388        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3389        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3390        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3391        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3392        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3393        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3394
3395        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3396
3397    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3398        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3399            return self.expressions(
3400                expression,
3401                key="actions",
3402                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3403                skip_first=True,
3404            )
3405        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3406
3407    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3408        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3409        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3410        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3411
3412    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3413        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3414
3415    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3416        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3417
3418        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3419            case = exp.case()
3420            for arg in expression.expressions:
3421                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3422            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3423
3424        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3425
3426        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3427        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3428        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3429
3430    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3431        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3432
3433    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3434        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3435
3436    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3437        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3438        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3439        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3440        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3441
3442    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3443        return self.sql(
3444            exp.Cast(
3445                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3446                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3447            )
3448        )
3449
3450    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3451        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3452            return self.func(
3453                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3454            )
3455        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3456
3457    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3458        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3459
3460        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3461            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3462
3463        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3464            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3465                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3466
3467        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3468            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3469                return self.sql(
3470                    exp.cast(
3471                        l / r,
3472                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3473                    )
3474                )
3475
3476        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3477
3478    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
3479        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
3480        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
3481        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))
3482
3483    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3484        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3485
3486    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3487        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3488
3489    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3490        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3491
3492    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3493        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3494
3495    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3496        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3497
3498    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3499        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3500
3501    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3502        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3503
3504    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3505        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3506
3507    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3508        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3509
3510    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3511        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3512
3513    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3514        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3515
3516    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3517        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3518            return self.sql(
3519                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3520            )
3521        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3522
3523    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3524        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3525
3526    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3527        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3528
3529    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3530        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3531
3532    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3533        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3534
3535    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3536        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3537
3538    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3539        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3540
3541    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3542        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3543
3544    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3545        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3546
3547    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3548        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3549
3550    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3551        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3552
3553    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3554        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3555
3556    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3557        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3558
3559    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3560        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3561
3562    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
3563        return self.cast_sql(expression)
3564
3565    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3566        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3567            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3568            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3569
3570        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3571
3572    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3573        this = expression.this
3574        expr = expression.expression
3575
3576        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3577            this, expr = expr, this
3578        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3579            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3580                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3581
3582            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3583
3584        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3585
3586    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3587        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3588        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3589        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3590        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3591        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3592
3593    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3594        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3595        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3596        binary_type = type(expression)
3597
3598        while stack:
3599            node = stack.pop()
3600
3601            if type(node) is binary_type:
3602                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3603                if op_func:
3604                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3605
3606                stack.append(node.right)
3607                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3608                stack.append(node.left)
3609            else:
3610                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3611
3612        return "".join(sqls)
3613
3614    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
3615        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
3616        if to_clause:
3617            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
3618
3619        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3620
3621    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3622        args = []
3623
3624        for key in expression.arg_types:
3625            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3626
3627            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3628                for value in arg_value:
3629                    args.append(value)
3630            elif arg_value is not None:
3631                args.append(arg_value)
3632
3633        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3634            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3635        else:
3636            name = expression.sql_name()
3637
3638        return self.func(name, *args)
3639
3640    def func(
3641        self,
3642        name: str,
3643        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3644        prefix: str = "(",
3645        suffix: str = ")",
3646        normalize: bool = True,
3647    ) -> str:
3648        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3649        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3650
3651    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3652        arg_sqls = tuple(
3653            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3654        )
3655        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3656            return self.indent(
3657                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3658            )
3659        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3660
3661    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3662        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3663
3664    def format_time(
3665        self,
3666        expression: exp.Expression,
3667        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3668        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3669    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3670        return format_time(
3671            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3672            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3673            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3674        )
3675
3676    def expressions(
3677        self,
3678        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3679        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3680        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3681        flat: bool = False,
3682        indent: bool = True,
3683        skip_first: bool = False,
3684        skip_last: bool = False,
3685        sep: str = ", ",
3686        prefix: str = "",
3687        dynamic: bool = False,
3688        new_line: bool = False,
3689    ) -> str:
3690        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3691
3692        if not expressions:
3693            return ""
3694
3695        if flat:
3696            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3697
3698        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3699        result_sqls = []
3700
3701        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3702            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3703            if not sql:
3704                continue
3705
3706            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3707
3708            if self.pretty:
3709                if self.leading_comma:
3710                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3711                else:
3712                    result_sqls.append(
3713                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3714                    )
3715            else:
3716                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3717
3718        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3719            if new_line:
3720                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3721                result_sqls.append("")
3722            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3723        else:
3724            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3725
3726        return (
3727            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3728            if indent
3729            else result_sql
3730        )
3731
3732    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3733        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3734        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3735        if flat:
3736            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3737        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3738
3739    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3740        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3741        if not property_name:
3742            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3743        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3744
3745    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3746        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3747
3748    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3749        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3750
3751    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3752        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3753        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3754        expressions = (
3755            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3756        )
3757        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3758
3759    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3761        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3762        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3763
3764    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3765        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3766
3767    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3768        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3769        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3770        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3771        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3772
3773        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3774        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3775            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3776            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3777            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3778            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3779        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3780            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3781                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3782            else:
3783                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3784        else:
3785            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3786        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3787
3788    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3789        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3790
3791    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3792        table = expression.this
3793        table_alias = ""
3794
3795        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3796        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3797            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3798            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3799
3800        this = self.sql(table)
3801        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3802        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3803        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3804
3805        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3806        if returning:
3807            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3808
3809        sep = self.sep()
3810
3811        return self.prepend_ctes(
3812            expression,
3813            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3814        )
3815
3816    @unsupported_args("format")
3817    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3818        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3819
3820    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3821        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3822            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3823            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3824
3825        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3826        if not fmt:
3827            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3828            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3829
3830        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3831
3832    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3834        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3835        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3836        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3837        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3838
3839    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3841        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3842        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3843        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3844
3845    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3846        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3847
3848    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3849        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3850
3851    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3852    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3853        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3854
3855    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3856    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3857        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3858        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3859        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3860        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3861        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3862        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3863        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3864
3865    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3866        return ""
3867
3868    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3869        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3870        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3871        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3872        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3873        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3874
3875    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3877        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3878
3879        if having:
3880            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3881
3882        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3883
3884    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3885        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3886        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3887        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3888        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3889        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3890        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3891        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3892        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3893        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3894        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3895        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3896        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3897        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3898
3899    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3900        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3901        if key_block_size:
3902            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3903
3904        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3905        if using:
3906            return f"USING {using}"
3907
3908        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3909        if parser:
3910            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3911
3912        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3913        if comment:
3914            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3915
3916        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3917        if visible is not None:
3918            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3919
3920        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3921        if engine_attr:
3922            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3923
3924        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3925        if secondary_engine_attr:
3926            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3927
3928        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3929        return ""
3930
3931    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3932        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3933        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3934
3935    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3936        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3937        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3939        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3940        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3941        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3942        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3943        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3944        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3945        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3946        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3947
3948    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3949        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3950            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3951
3952        case = exp.Case().when(
3953            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3954            expression.args["true"],
3955            copy=False,
3956        )
3957        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3958        if else_cond:
3959            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3960
3961        return self.sql(case)
3962
3963    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3965        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3966        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3967        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3968        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3969        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3970
3971    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3972        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3973
3974    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3975        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3976
3977    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3978        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3979        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3980        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3981        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3982        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3983        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3984
3985    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3987        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3988        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3989
3990    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3991        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3992        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3993        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3994
3995    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3996        arg = expression.this
3997        if not arg.type:
3998            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3999
4000            arg = annotate_types(arg)
4001
4002        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
4003            return self.sql(arg)
4004
4005        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
4006        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
4007
4008    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
4009        this = expression.this
4010        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4011
4012        if time_format:
4013            return self.sql(
4014                exp.cast(
4015                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4016                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
4017                )
4018            )
4019
4020        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
4021            return self.sql(this)
4022
4023        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
4024
4025    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
4026        this = expression.this
4027        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
4028            return self.sql(this)
4029
4030        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
4031
4032    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
4033        this = expression.this
4034        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
4035            return self.sql(this)
4036
4037        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
4038
4039    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
4040        this = expression.this
4041        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4042
4043        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
4044            return self.sql(
4045                exp.cast(
4046                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4047                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
4048                )
4049            )
4050
4051        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
4052            return self.sql(this)
4053
4054        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
4055
4056    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
4057        return self.sql(
4058            exp.func(
4059                "DATEDIFF",
4060                expression.this,
4061                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
4062                "day",
4063            )
4064        )
4065
4066    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
4067        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
4068            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4069
4070        unit = expression.text("unit")
4071        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
4072            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
4073
4074        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
4075
4076    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
4077        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
4078
4079        return self.func(
4080            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
4081        )
4082
4083    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
4084        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
4085            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
4086            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
4087            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
4088            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
4089
4090        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
4091
4092        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
4093        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
4094            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4095
4096        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4097
4098    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4099        expression.set(
4100            "expressions",
4101            [
4102                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4103                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4104                else e
4105                for e in expression.expressions
4106            ],
4107        )
4108
4109        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4110
4111    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4112        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4113        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4114
4115        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4116
4117    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4118        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4119        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4120
4121        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4122
4123        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4124        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4125
4126        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4127        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4128
4129        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4130        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4131
4132        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4133        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4134
4135        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4136
4137    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4138    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4139    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4140        to = expression.this
4141        value = expression.expression
4142        style = expression.args.get("style")
4143        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4144        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4145
4146        if not to or not value:
4147            return ""
4148
4149        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4150        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4151            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4152
4153        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4154        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4155
4156        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4157        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4158            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4159
4160            style_value = style.name
4161            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4162            if not converted_style:
4163                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4164
4165            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4166
4167            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4168                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4169            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4170                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4171            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4172                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4173            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4174                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4175
4176        if not transformed:
4177            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4178
4179        return self.sql(transformed)
4180
4181    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4182        this = expression.this
4183        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4184            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4185            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4186
4187        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4188            return f".{this}"
4189
4190        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4191        return (
4192            f"[{this}]"
4193            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4194            else f".{this}"
4195        )
4196
4197    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4198        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4199        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4200
4201    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4202        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4203            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4204
4205            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4206
4207        return expression
4208
4209    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4210        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4211            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4212            mods = sorted(
4213                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4214                key=lambda x: 0
4215                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4216                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4217            )
4218
4219            if mods:
4220                mod = mods[0]
4221                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4222                this.meta["inline"] = True
4223                mod.this.replace(this)
4224                return self.sql(expression.this)
4225
4226            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4227
4228            if agg_func:
4229                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4230
4231        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4232
4233    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4234        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4235        if self.pretty:
4236            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4237        return string
4238
4239    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4240        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4241
4242        if expression.expressions:
4243            upper = option.upper()
4244
4245            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4246            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4247
4248            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4249            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4250            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4251            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4252
4253        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4254
4255        if not value:
4256            return option
4257
4258        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4259
4260        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4261
4262    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4263        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4264        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4265            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4266            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4267            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4268        else:
4269            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4270            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4271            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4272
4273        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4274        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4275
4276        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4277        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4278
4279        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4280        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4281
4282        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4283        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4284
4285        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4286
4287    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4289        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4290
4291        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4292        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4293        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4294        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4295
4296        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4297        params = self.expressions(
4298            expression,
4299            key="params",
4300            sep=sep,
4301            new_line=True,
4302            skip_last=True,
4303            skip_first=True,
4304            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4305        )
4306
4307        if params:
4308            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4309                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4310            elif not self.pretty:
4311                params = f" {params}"
4312
4313        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4314
4315    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4316        return ""
4317
4318    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4319        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4320        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4321        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4322        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4323        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4324
4325        if filter_col or retention_period:
4326            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4327
4328        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4329
4330    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4331        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4332    ) -> str:
4333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4334        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4335        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4336        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4337
4338    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4339        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4340        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4341        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4342
4343    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4344        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4345
4346    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4347        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4348        expr = expression.expression
4349
4350        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4351            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4352            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4353        else:
4354            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4355
4356        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4357
4358    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4359        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4360            return self.sql(expression.this)
4361
4362        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4363
4364    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4365        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4366        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4367
4368        if lower and upper:
4369            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4370        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4371
4372    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4373        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4374        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4375        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4376        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4377        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4378        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4379
4380        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4381
4382    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4383        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4384
4385        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4386        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4387            fill_pattern = "' '"
4388
4389        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4390
4391    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4392        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4393        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4394
4395    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4396        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4397
4398        parent = expression.parent
4399        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4400            parent = parent.parent
4401
4402        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4403            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4404
4405        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4406            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4407
4408        return self.sql(generate_series)
4409
4410    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4411        exprs = expression.expressions
4412        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4413            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4414        else:
4415            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4416
4417        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4418
4419    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4420        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4421            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4422
4423        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4424        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4425        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4426
4427        if source_tz and timestamp:
4428            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4429                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4430            )
4431
4432        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4433
4434        return self.sql(expr)
4435
4436    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4437        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4438        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4439
4440        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4441
4442        if _with is None:
4443            with_sql = ""
4444        elif not _with:
4445            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4446        else:
4447            with_sql = " WITH"
4448
4449        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4450
4451        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4452
4453    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4454        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4455            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4456
4457        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4458        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4459        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4460
4461        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4462        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4463
4464        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4465
4466    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4467        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4468        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4469        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4470        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4471        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4472
4473    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4474        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4475        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4476        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4477        return res
4478
4479    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4480        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4481        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4482        empty = (
4483            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4484            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4485            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4486        )
4487
4488        error = expression.args.get("error")
4489        error = (
4490            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4491            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4492            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4493        )
4494
4495        if error and empty:
4496            error = (
4497                f"{empty} {error}"
4498                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4499                else f"{error} {empty}"
4500            )
4501            empty = ""
4502
4503        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4504
4505        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4506
4507    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
4508        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
4509        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"
4510
4511    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4513        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4514
4515        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4516        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4517
4518        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4519        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4520
4521        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4522
4523        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4524
4525    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4526        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4527
4528        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4529        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4530        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4531            parent = expression.parent
4532            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4533                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4534                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4535            else:
4536                this = expression.this
4537                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4538                if this.find(exp.Column):
4539                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4540                    this_sql = (
4541                        self.expressions(this)
4542                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4543                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4544                    )
4545
4546                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4547
4548        return array_agg
4549
4550    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4551        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4552        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4553
4554        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4555
4556    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4557        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4558
4559        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4560        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4561
4562        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4563        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4564
4565        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4566
4567        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4568
4569        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4570
4571    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4573        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4574        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4575
4576        return f"{this}{columns}"
4577
4578    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4580
4581        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4582        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4583
4584        return f"{kind}{this}"
4585
4586    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4587        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4588        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4589            func = f"*{func}"
4590
4591        return func
4592
4593    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4595        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4596        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4597        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4598        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4599
4600        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4601
4602    @unsupported_args("format")
4603    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4604        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4605
4606    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4607        this = expression.this
4608        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4609
4610        if zone:
4611            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4612            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4613            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4614            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4615                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4616            )
4617
4618        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4619
4620    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4621        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4622            return self.sql(
4623                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4624            )
4625
4626        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4627
4628    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4629        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4630        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4631        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4632        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4633
4634    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4635        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4636            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4637
4638        start_ts = exp.cast(
4639            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4640        )
4641
4642        return self.sql(
4643            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4644        )
4645
4646    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4647        dim = expression.expression
4648
4649        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4650        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4651            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4652                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4653            dim = None
4654
4655        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4656        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4657            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4658
4659        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4660
4661    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4663        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4664        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4665        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4666
4667        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4668
4669    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4670        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4671        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4672
4673        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4674
4675    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4677        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4678        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4679        return f"{this}{value}"
4680
4681    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4682        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4683        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4684            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4685
4686        return self.func(
4687            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4688            this_sql,
4689            expression.args.get("time"),
4690            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4691            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4692        )
4693
4694    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4695        return (
4696            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4697        )
4698
4699    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4700        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4701        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4702
4703        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4704        if properties:
4705            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4706
4707        return encode
4708
4709    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4711        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4712
4713        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4714        if column_def:
4715            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4716
4717        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4718        if alias:
4719            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4720
4721        return include
4722
4723    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4724        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4725        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4726
4727    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4728        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4729        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4730        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4731
4732    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4733        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4734    ) -> str:
4735        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4736        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4737
4738        every = expression.args["every"]
4739        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4740            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4741
4742        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4743
4744    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4745        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4746        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4747
4748        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4749
4750    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
4751        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4752        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
4753        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
4754
4755    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
4756        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4757        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4758        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4760        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4761        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4762        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
4763        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
4764
4765    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
4766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4767        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4768        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4769        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4770        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
4771        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
4772        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
4773
4774    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
4775        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4776        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4777        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
4778
4779    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
4780        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4781        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
4782
4783    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
4784        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4786        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4787        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4788        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
4789
4790    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
4791        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4792        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4793        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4794        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4796        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4797        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
4798        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
4799        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
4800        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
4801        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4802        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4803        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4804        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4805        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
4806
4807    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4809        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
4810        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
4811        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4812        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4813        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4814        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4815        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4816        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
4817
4818    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
4819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4820        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"
4821
4822    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
4823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4824        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
4825        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
4826        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
4827        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"
4828
4829    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
4830        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
4831
4832    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
4833        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
4834        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
4835        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
4836
4837        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4838        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
4839            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
4840
4841        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"
4842
4843    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
4844        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4846        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4847        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
4848        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
4849
4850        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"
4851
4852        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"
4853
4854    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4855        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
4856        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"
4857
4858    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
4859        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
4860
4861    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
4862        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)
4863
4864    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4865        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)
4866
4867    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
4868        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
4869        return ""
4870
4871    def put_sql(self, expression: exp.Put) -> str:
4872        props = expression.args.get("properties")
4873        props_sql = self.properties(props, prefix=" ", sep=" ", wrapped=False) if props else ""
4874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4875        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
4876        return f"PUT {this} {target}{props_sql}"