sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 118        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
 119        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 120        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 121        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 124        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 125        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 126        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 130        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 131        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.ConvertToCharset: lambda self, e: self.func(
 135            "CONVERT", e.this, e.args["dest"], e.args.get("source")
 136        ),
 137        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 138        exp.CredentialsProperty: lambda self,
 139        e: f"CREDENTIALS=({self.expressions(e, 'expressions', sep=' ')})",
 140        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 143        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 144        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 145        exp.EnviromentProperty: lambda self, e: f"ENVIRONMENT ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 147        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 148        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 149        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 150        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 151        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 152        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 153        exp.Get: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
 154        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 155        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 156        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 157        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 158        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 161        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 162        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 163        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 164        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 165        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 166        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 167        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 168        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 169        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 170        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 171        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 172        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 173        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 176        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 177        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.PartitionedByBucket: lambda self, e: self.func("BUCKET", e.this, e.expression),
 179        exp.PartitionByTruncate: lambda self, e: self.func("TRUNCATE", e.this, e.expression),
 180        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 181        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 182        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 183        exp.Put: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
 184        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 185        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 187            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 188        ),
 189        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 191        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 193        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 194        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 195        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 196        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 197        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 198        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 199        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 200        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 201        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 202        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 203        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 205        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 206        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 207        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 208        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 209        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 210        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 211        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 212        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 213        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: lambda self, e: f"USING TEMPLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 214        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 215        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 216        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 217        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 218        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 219        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 220        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 221        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 222        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 223        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 224        exp.ForceProperty: lambda *_: "FORCE",
 225    }
 226
 227    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 228    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 229    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 230    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 231
 232    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 233    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 234    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 235
 236    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 237    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 238
 239    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 240    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 241
 242    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 243    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 244
 245    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 246    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 247
 248    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 249    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 250
 251    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 252    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 253
 254    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 255    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 256
 257    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 258    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 259
 260    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 261    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 262
 263    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 264    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 265
 266    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 267    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 268
 269    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 270    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 271
 272    # Whether join hints should be generated
 273    JOIN_HINTS = True
 274
 275    # Whether table hints should be generated
 276    TABLE_HINTS = True
 277
 278    # Whether query hints should be generated
 279    QUERY_HINTS = True
 280
 281    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 282    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 283
 284    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 285    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 286
 287    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 288    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 289
 290    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 291    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 292
 293    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 294    RETURNING_END = True
 295
 296    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 297    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 298
 299    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 300    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 301
 302    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 303    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 304
 305    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 306    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 307
 308    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 309    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 310    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 311    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 312
 313    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 314    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 315
 316    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 317    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 318
 319    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 320    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 321
 322    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 323    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 324
 325    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 326    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 327
 328    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 329    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 330
 331    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 332    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 333
 334    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 335    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 336
 337    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 338    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 339
 340    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 341    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 342
 343    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 344    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 345
 346    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 347    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 348
 349    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 350    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 351
 352    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 353    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 354
 355    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 356    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 357
 358    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 359    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 360
 361    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 362    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 363
 364    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 365    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 366
 367    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 368    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 369
 370    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 371    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 372
 373    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 374    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 375
 376    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 377    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 378
 379    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 380    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 381
 382    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 383    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 384
 385    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 386    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 387
 388    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 389    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 390    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 391
 392    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 393    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 394
 395    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 396    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 397
 398    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 399    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 400
 401    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 402    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 403
 404    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 405    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 406
 407    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 408    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 409
 410    # Whether EXCLUDE in window specification is supported
 411    SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE = False
 412
 413    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 414    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 415    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 416    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 417
 418    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 419    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 420
 421    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 422    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 423
 424    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 425    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 426
 427    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 428    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 429
 430    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 431    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 432
 433    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 434    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 435
 436    # The HEX function name
 437    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 438
 439    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 440    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 441
 442    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 443    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 444
 445    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 446    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 447
 448    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 449    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 450
 451    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 452    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 453
 454    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 455    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 456
 457    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 458    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 459
 460    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 461    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 462
 463    # Whether to wrap <props> in `AlterSet`, e.g., ALTER ... SET (<props>)
 464    ALTER_SET_WRAPPED = False
 465
 466    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 467    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 468
 469    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 470    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 471
 472    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
 473    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"
 474
 475    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 476    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 477    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 478    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 479    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 480
 481    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 482        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 483        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 484        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 485        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 486        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 487        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 488        exp.DataType.Type.BLOB: "VARBINARY",
 489        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 490        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 491        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 492        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 493        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 494        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 495    }
 496
 497    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 498        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 499        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 500        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 501        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 502        "DAYS": "DAY",
 503        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 504        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 505        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 506        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 507    }
 508
 509    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 510        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 511        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 512        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 513        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 514            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 515            if e.args.get("windows")
 516            else ""
 517        ),
 518        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 519    }
 520
 521    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 522
 523    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 524
 525    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 526    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 527
 528    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 529
 530    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 531        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 533        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 537        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 539        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 546        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 548        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 551        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 555        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.EnviromentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 559        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 560        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 561        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 562        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 563        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 564        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 566        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 569        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 570        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 572        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 575        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 576        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 577        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 578        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 579        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 580        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 581        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 582        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 583        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 584        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 585        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 586        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 587        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 588        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 589        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 590        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 591        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 592        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 593        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 594        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 595        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 596        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 597        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 598        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 599        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 600        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 601        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 602        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 603        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 604        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 605        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 606        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 607        exp.StorageHandlerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 608        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 609        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 610        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 611        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 612        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 613        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 614        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 615        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 616        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 617        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 618        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 619        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 620        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 621        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 622        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 623        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 624        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 625        exp.ForceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 626    }
 627
 628    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 629    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 630
 631    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 632    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 633        exp.Command,
 634        exp.Create,
 635        exp.Describe,
 636        exp.Delete,
 637        exp.Drop,
 638        exp.From,
 639        exp.Insert,
 640        exp.Join,
 641        exp.MultitableInserts,
 642        exp.Select,
 643        exp.SetOperation,
 644        exp.Update,
 645        exp.Where,
 646        exp.With,
 647    )
 648
 649    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 650    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 651        exp.Binary,
 652        exp.SetOperation,
 653    )
 654
 655    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 656    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 657        exp.Column,
 658        exp.Literal,
 659        exp.Neg,
 660        exp.Paren,
 661    )
 662
 663    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 664        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 665        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 666        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 667        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 668    }
 669
 670    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 671    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 672
 673    RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = ()
 674
 675    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 676
 677    __slots__ = (
 678        "pretty",
 679        "identify",
 680        "normalize",
 681        "pad",
 682        "_indent",
 683        "normalize_functions",
 684        "unsupported_level",
 685        "max_unsupported",
 686        "leading_comma",
 687        "max_text_width",
 688        "comments",
 689        "dialect",
 690        "unsupported_messages",
 691        "_escaped_quote_end",
 692        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 693        "_next_name",
 694        "_identifier_start",
 695        "_identifier_end",
 696        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 697    )
 698
 699    def __init__(
 700        self,
 701        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 702        identify: str | bool = False,
 703        normalize: bool = False,
 704        pad: int = 2,
 705        indent: int = 2,
 706        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 707        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 708        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 709        leading_comma: bool = False,
 710        max_text_width: int = 80,
 711        comments: bool = True,
 712        dialect: DialectType = None,
 713    ):
 714        import sqlglot
 715        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 716
 717        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 718        self.identify = identify
 719        self.normalize = normalize
 720        self.pad = pad
 721        self._indent = indent
 722        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 723        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 724        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 725        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 726        self.comments = comments
 727        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 728
 729        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 730        self.normalize_functions = (
 731            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 732        )
 733
 734        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 735        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 736            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 737        )
 738        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 739
 740        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 741
 742        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 743        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 744
 745        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 746
 747    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 748        """
 749        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 750
 751        Args:
 752            expression: The syntax tree.
 753            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 754                it is safer to copy.
 755
 756        Returns:
 757            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 758        """
 759        if copy:
 760            expression = expression.copy()
 761
 762        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 763
 764        self.unsupported_messages = []
 765        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 766
 767        if self.pretty:
 768            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 769
 770        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 771            return sql
 772
 773        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 774            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 775                logger.warning(msg)
 776        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 777            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 778
 779        return sql
 780
 781    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 782        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 783        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 784
 785        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 786            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 787
 788            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 789
 790        return expression
 791
 792    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 793        if (
 794            not expression.parent
 795            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 796            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 797        ):
 798            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 799
 800            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 801        return expression
 802
 803    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 804        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 805            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 806        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 807
 808    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 809        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 810
 811    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 812        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 813
 814    def sanitize_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 815        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 816        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 817
 818        if not self.dialect.tokenizer_class.NESTED_COMMENTS:
 819            # Necessary workaround to avoid syntax errors due to nesting: /* ... */ ... */
 820            comment = comment.replace("*/", "* /")
 821
 822        return comment
 823
 824    def maybe_comment(
 825        self,
 826        sql: str,
 827        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 828        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 829        separated: bool = False,
 830    ) -> str:
 831        comments = (
 832            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 833            if self.comments
 834            else None
 835        )
 836
 837        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 838            return sql
 839
 840        comments_sql = " ".join(
 841            f"/*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 842        )
 843
 844        if not comments_sql:
 845            return sql
 846
 847        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 848
 849        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 850            return (
 851                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 852                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 853                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 854            )
 855
 856        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 857
 858    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 859        this_sql = (
 860            self.sql(expression)
 861            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 862            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 863        )
 864        if not this_sql:
 865            return "()"
 866
 867        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 868        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 869
 870    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 871        original = self.identify
 872        self.identify = False
 873        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 874        self.identify = original
 875        return result
 876
 877    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 878        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 879            return name.upper()
 880        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 881            return name.lower()
 882        return name
 883
 884    def indent(
 885        self,
 886        sql: str,
 887        level: int = 0,
 888        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 889        skip_first: bool = False,
 890        skip_last: bool = False,
 891    ) -> str:
 892        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 893            return sql
 894
 895        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 896        lines = sql.split("\n")
 897
 898        return "\n".join(
 899            (
 900                line
 901                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 902                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 903            )
 904            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 905        )
 906
 907    def sql(
 908        self,
 909        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 910        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 911        comment: bool = True,
 912    ) -> str:
 913        if not expression:
 914            return ""
 915
 916        if isinstance(expression, str):
 917            return expression
 918
 919        if key:
 920            value = expression.args.get(key)
 921            if value:
 922                return self.sql(value)
 923            return ""
 924
 925        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 926
 927        if callable(transform):
 928            sql = transform(self, expression)
 929        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 930            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 931
 932            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 933                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 934            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 935                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 936            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 937                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 938            else:
 939                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 940        else:
 941            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 942
 943        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 944
 945    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 946        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 947        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 948        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 949
 950    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 951        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 952        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 953        options = expression.args.get("options")
 954        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 955        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 956        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 957        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 958        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 959
 960    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 961        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 962            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 963        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 964        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 965
 966    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 967        return ".".join(
 968            self.sql(part)
 969            for part in (
 970                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 971                expression.args.get("db"),
 972                expression.args.get("table"),
 973                expression.args.get("this"),
 974            )
 975            if part
 976        )
 977
 978    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 979        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 980
 981        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 982            join_mark = ""
 983            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 984
 985        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 986
 987    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 989        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 990        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 991        return f"{position}{this}"
 992
 993    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 994        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 995        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 996        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 997        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 998        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 999        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
1000        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
1001        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
1002
1003        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
1004            kind = ""
1005
1006        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
1007
1008    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
1009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1010        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
1011        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
1012
1013    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
1014        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1015        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
1016            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
1017        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
1018            persisted = " PERSISTED"
1019        else:
1020            persisted = ""
1021        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
1022
1023    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
1024        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
1025
1026    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
1027        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1028            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
1029        else:
1030            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1031
1032        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
1033
1034    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
1035        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
1036    ) -> str:
1037        this = ""
1038        if expression.this is not None:
1039            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1040            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1041
1042        start = expression.args.get("start")
1043        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1044        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1045        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1046        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1047        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1048        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1049        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1050        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1051        cycle_sql = ""
1052
1053        if cycle is not None:
1054            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1055            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1056
1057        sequence_opts = ""
1058        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1059            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1060            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1061
1062        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1063        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1064
1065        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1066
1067    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1068        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1069    ) -> str:
1070        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1071        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1072        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1073
1074    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1075        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1076    ) -> str:
1077        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1078
1079    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1080        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1081
1082    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1083        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1084
1085    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1086        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1087        if desc is not None:
1088            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1089        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1090        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1091        return f"PRIMARY KEY{options}"
1092
1093    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1094        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1095        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1096        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1097        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1098        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1099        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1100        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1101        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1102        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1103        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}{options}"
1104
1105    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1106        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1107
1108    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1109        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1110        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1111        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1112        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1113
1114        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1115
1116        properties_sql = ""
1117        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1118            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1119        ):
1120            properties_sql = self.sql(
1121                exp.Properties(
1122                    expressions=[
1123                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1124                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1125                    ]
1126                )
1127            )
1128
1129            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1130                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1131            elif not self.pretty:
1132                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1133                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1134
1135        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1136        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1137
1138        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1139        if expression_sql:
1140            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1141
1142            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1143                postalias_props_sql = ""
1144                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1145                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1146                        exp.Properties(
1147                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1148                        ),
1149                        wrapped=False,
1150                    )
1151                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1152                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1153
1154        postindex_props_sql = ""
1155        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1156            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1157                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1158                wrapped=False,
1159                prefix=" ",
1160            )
1161
1162        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1163        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1164        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1165
1166        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1167        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1168        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1169
1170        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1171        if clustered is None:
1172            clustered_sql = ""
1173        elif clustered:
1174            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1175        else:
1176            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1177
1178        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1179        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1180            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1181                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1182                sep=" ",
1183                prefix=" ",
1184                wrapped=False,
1185            )
1186
1187        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1188
1189        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1190        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1191            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1192                exp.Properties(
1193                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1194                ),
1195                sep=" ",
1196                prefix=" ",
1197                wrapped=False,
1198            )
1199
1200        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1201        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1202        no_schema_binding = (
1203            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1204        )
1205
1206        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1207        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1208
1209        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1210            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1211        else:
1212            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1213
1214        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1215        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1216
1217    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1218        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1219        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1220        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1221        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1222        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1223        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1224        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1225        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1226        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1227        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1228
1229        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1230        if cache is None:
1231            cache_str = ""
1232        elif cache is True:
1233            cache_str = " CACHE"
1234        else:
1235            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1236
1237        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1238        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1239
1240        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1241
1242    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1244        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1245        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1246        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1247
1248    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1249        style = expression.args.get("style")
1250        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1251        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1252        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1253        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1254        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1255
1256        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1257
1258    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1259        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1260        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1261
1262    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1263        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1264        if with_:
1265            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1266        return sql
1267
1268    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1269        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1270        recursive = (
1271            "RECURSIVE "
1272            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1273            else ""
1274        )
1275        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
1276        search = f" {search}" if search else ""
1277
1278        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"
1279
1280    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1281        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1282        if alias:
1283            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1284
1285        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1286
1287        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1288        if materialized is False:
1289            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1290        elif materialized:
1291            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1292
1293        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1294
1295    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1296        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1297        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1298        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1299
1300        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1301            columns = ""
1302            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1303
1304        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1305            alias = self._next_name()
1306
1307        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1308
1309    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1310        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1311        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1312            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1313        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1314
1315    def hexstring_sql(
1316        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
1317    ) -> str:
1318        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1319        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")
1320
1321        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
1322            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
1323        ):
1324            # Integer representation will be returned if:
1325            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
1326            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
1327            return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1328
1329        if not is_integer_type:
1330            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
1331            if binary_function_repr:
1332                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
1333                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
1334            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
1335                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
1336                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")
1337
1338        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1339
1340    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1342        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1343            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1344        return this
1345
1346    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1347        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1348        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1349
1350        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1351            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1352            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1353        else:
1354            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1355            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1356
1357        if escape:
1358            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1359            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1360        else:
1361            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1362            escape_sql = ""
1363
1364        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1365            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1366
1367        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1368
1369    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1370        string = expression.this
1371        if "\\" in self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES:
1372            string = string.replace("\\", "\\\\")
1373
1374        string = self.escape_str(string, escape_backslash=False)
1375        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1376
1377    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1379        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1380        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1381        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1382
1383    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1384        nested = ""
1385        values = ""
1386        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1387
1388        type_value = expression.this
1389        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1390            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1391        else:
1392            type_sql = (
1393                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1394                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1395                else type_value
1396            )
1397
1398        if interior:
1399            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1400                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1401                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1402                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1403                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1404                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1405            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1406                nested = f" {interior}"
1407            else:
1408                nested = f"({interior})"
1409
1410        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1411        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1412            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1413            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1414        ):
1415            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1416
1417        return type_sql
1418
1419    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1420        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1421        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1422        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1423        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1424
1425    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1426        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1427        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1428        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1429        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1430        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1431        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1432        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1433        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1434        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1435        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1436        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1437        if self.RETURNING_END:
1438            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1439        else:
1440            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1441        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1442
1443    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1445        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1446        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1447        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1448        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1449        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1450        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1451        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1452        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1453        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1454        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1455        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1456        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1457        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1458        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1459
1460    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1461        op_type = type(expression)
1462        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1463
1464        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1465        if (
1466            distinct is False
1467            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1468            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1469        ):
1470            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1471
1472        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1473
1474        if distinct is None:
1475            distinct = default_distinct
1476            if distinct is None:
1477                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1478
1479        if distinct is default_distinct:
1480            distinct_or_all = ""
1481        else:
1482            distinct_or_all = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1483
1484        side_kind = " ".join(filter(None, [expression.side, expression.kind]))
1485        side_kind = f"{side_kind} " if side_kind else ""
1486
1487        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1488        on = self.expressions(expression, key="on", flat=True)
1489        on = f" ON ({on})" if on else ""
1490
1491        return f"{side_kind}{op_name}{distinct_or_all}{by_name}{on}"
1492
1493    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1494        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1495            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1496            order = expression.args.get("order")
1497
1498            if limit or order:
1499                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1500                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1501                )
1502
1503                if limit:
1504                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1505                if order:
1506                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1507                return self.sql(select)
1508
1509        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1510        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1511
1512        while stack:
1513            node = stack.pop()
1514
1515            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1516                stack.append(node.expression)
1517                stack.append(
1518                    self.maybe_comment(
1519                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1520                    )
1521                )
1522                stack.append(node.this)
1523            else:
1524                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1525
1526        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1527        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1528        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1529
1530    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1531        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1532        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1533        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1534        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1535        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
1536        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
1537        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"
1538
1539    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
1540        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1541        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
1542        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
1543        if not with_ties and rows:
1544            with_ties = " ONLY"
1545        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"
1546
1547    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1548        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1549            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1550            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1551            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1552
1553        agg = expression.this
1554        agg_arg = agg.this
1555        cond = expression.expression.this
1556        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1557        return self.sql(agg)
1558
1559    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1560        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1561            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1562            return ""
1563
1564        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1565
1566    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1567        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1568        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1569        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1570        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1571        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1572        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1573        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1574        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1575        if include:
1576            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1577        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1578        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1579        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1580        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1581        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1582        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1583
1584        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1585
1586    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1587        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1588        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1589        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1590        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1591        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1592        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1593        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1594
1595        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1596
1597        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1598        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1599
1600    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1601        text = expression.name
1602        lower = text.lower()
1603        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1604        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1605        if (
1606            expression.quoted
1607            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1608            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1609            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1610        ):
1611            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1612        return text
1613
1614    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1615        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1616        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1617            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1618
1619        return text
1620
1621    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1622        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1623        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1624            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1625        return text
1626
1627    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1628        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1629        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1630        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1631        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1632        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1633
1634    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1635        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1636        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1637
1638    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1639        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
1640        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1641
1642    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1643        root_properties = []
1644        with_properties = []
1645
1646        for p in expression.expressions:
1647            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1648            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1649                with_properties.append(p)
1650            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1651                root_properties.append(p)
1652
1653        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1654        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1655
1656        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1657            with_props = " " + with_props
1658
1659        return root_props + with_props
1660
1661    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1662        if properties.expressions:
1663            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1664        return ""
1665
1666    def properties(
1667        self,
1668        properties: exp.Properties,
1669        prefix: str = "",
1670        sep: str = ", ",
1671        suffix: str = "",
1672        wrapped: bool = True,
1673    ) -> str:
1674        if properties.expressions:
1675            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1676            if expressions:
1677                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1678                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1679        return ""
1680
1681    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1682        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1683
1684    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1685        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1686        for p in properties.expressions:
1687            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1688            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1689                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1690            else:
1691                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1692
1693        return properties_locs
1694
1695    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1696        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1697            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1698        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1699
1700    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1701        property_cls = expression.__class__
1702        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1703            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1704
1705        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1706        if not property_name:
1707            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1708
1709        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1710
1711    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1712        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1713            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1714            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1715
1716            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1717            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1718                like = f"({like})"
1719
1720            return like
1721
1722        if expression.expressions:
1723            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1724
1725        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1726        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1727
1728    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1729        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1730        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1731        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1732
1733    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1734        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1735        local = expression.args.get("local")
1736        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1737        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1738        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1739        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1740        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1741
1742    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1743        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1745        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1746
1747    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1748        if expression.args.get("default"):
1749            property = "DEFAULT"
1750        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1751            property = "ON"
1752        else:
1753            property = "OFF"
1754        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1755
1756    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1757        if expression.args.get("no"):
1758            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1759        if expression.args.get("default"):
1760            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1761
1762        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1763        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1764
1765    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1766        default = expression.args.get("default")
1767        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1768        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1769        if default or minimum or maximum:
1770            if default:
1771                prop = "DEFAULT"
1772            elif minimum:
1773                prop = "MINIMUM"
1774            else:
1775                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1776            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1777        units = expression.args.get("units")
1778        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1779        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1780
1781    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1782        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1783        always = expression.args.get("always")
1784        default = expression.args.get("default")
1785        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1786        never = expression.args.get("never")
1787
1788        if autotemp is not None:
1789            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1790        elif always:
1791            prop = "ALWAYS"
1792        elif default:
1793            prop = "DEFAULT"
1794        elif manual:
1795            prop = "MANUAL"
1796        elif never:
1797            prop = "NEVER"
1798        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1799
1800    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1801        no = expression.args.get("no")
1802        no = " NO" if no else ""
1803        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1804        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1805        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1806        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1807        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1808
1809    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1810        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1811            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1812        if expression.this:
1813            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1814            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1815            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1816
1817        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1818        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1819        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1820
1821    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1823
1824        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1825        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1826            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1827        else:
1828            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1829
1830        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1831
1832    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1833        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1834        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1835        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1836        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1837        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1838        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1839        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1840
1841    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1842        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1843        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1844        statistics_sql = ""
1845        if statistics is not None:
1846            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1847        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1848
1849    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1850        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1851        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1852        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1853        data_consistency = (
1854            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1855        )
1856        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1857        retention_period = (
1858            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1859        )
1860
1861        if this:
1862            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1863        else:
1864            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1865
1866        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1867
1868        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1869
1870    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1871        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1872        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1873
1874        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1875            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1876        else:
1877            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1878
1879        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1880        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1881        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1882        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1883        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1884        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1885        if is_function:
1886            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1887        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1888
1889        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1890        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1891        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1892        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1893        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1894        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1895        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1896        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1897
1898        if self.RETURNING_END:
1899            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1900        else:
1901            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1902
1903        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1904        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1905        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1906        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1907
1908        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1909        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1910
1911        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1912        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1913
1914    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1915        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1916
1917    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1918        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1919        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1921        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1922        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1923
1924    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1925        return expression.name
1926
1927    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1928        return expression.name
1929
1930    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1931        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1932
1933        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1934        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1935
1936        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1937        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1938        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1939
1940        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1941        if expressions:
1942            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1943            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1944
1945        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1946        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1947
1948    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1949        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1950
1951    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1952        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1953        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1954        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1955        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1956        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1957        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1958        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1959        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1960        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1961        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1962        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1963        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1964        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1965
1966    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1967        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1968
1969    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1970        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1971        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1972        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1973        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1974
1975    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1977        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1978        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1979        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1980
1981    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1982        return ".".join(
1983            self.sql(part)
1984            for part in (
1985                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1986                expression.args.get("db"),
1987                expression.args.get("this"),
1988            )
1989            if part is not None
1990        )
1991
1992    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1993        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1994        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1995        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1996        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1997        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1998        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1999        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2000        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2001
2002        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2003        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
2004            sample_pre_alias = sample
2005            sample_post_alias = ""
2006        else:
2007            sample_pre_alias = ""
2008            sample_post_alias = sample
2009
2010        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
2011        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
2012        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2013        joins = self.indent(
2014            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
2015        )
2016        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
2017
2018        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
2019        if file_format:
2020            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2021            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
2022            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
2023
2024        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
2025        if ordinality:
2026            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
2027            alias = ""
2028
2029        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
2030        if when:
2031            table = f"{table} {when}"
2032
2033        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
2034        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
2035
2036        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
2037        if rows_from:
2038            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
2039
2040        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
2041
2042    def tablefromrows_sql(self, expression: exp.TableFromRows) -> str:
2043        table = self.func("TABLE", expression.this)
2044        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2045        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2046        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2047        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2048        joins = self.indent(
2049            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
2050        )
2051        return f"{table}{alias}{pivots}{sample}{joins}"
2052
2053    def tablesample_sql(
2054        self,
2055        expression: exp.TableSample,
2056        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
2057    ) -> str:
2058        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
2059        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
2060        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
2061        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
2062        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
2063        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
2064        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
2065        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
2066        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
2067
2068        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
2069        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
2070            size = f"{size} ROWS"
2071
2072        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
2073        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
2074            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
2075
2076        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
2077        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
2078            expr = f"({expr})"
2079
2080        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
2081
2082    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
2083        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2084        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
2085
2086        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2087
2088        if expression.this:
2089            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2090            if not expressions:
2091                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
2092
2093            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2094            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2095            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2096            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2097            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2098            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2099
2100        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2101        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2102
2103        fields = self.expressions(
2104            expression,
2105            "fields",
2106            sep=" ",
2107            dynamic=True,
2108            new_line=True,
2109            skip_first=True,
2110            skip_last=True,
2111        )
2112
2113        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2114        if include_nulls is not None:
2115            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2116        else:
2117            nulls = ""
2118
2119        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2120        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2121        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {fields}{default_on_null}{group}){alias}"
2122
2123    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2124        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2125        kind = expression.text("kind")
2126        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2127        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2128
2129    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2130        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2131
2132    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2135        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2136        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2137        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2138        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2139        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2140        if self.RETURNING_END:
2141            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2142        else:
2143            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2144        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2145        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2146
2147    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2148        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2149
2150        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2151        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2152            args = self.expressions(expression)
2153            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2154            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2155            values = (
2156                f"({values})"
2157                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2158                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2159                else values
2160            )
2161            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2162
2163        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2164        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2165        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2166
2167        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2168
2169        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2170            row = tup.expressions
2171
2172            if i == 0 and column_names:
2173                row = [
2174                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2175                ]
2176
2177            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2178
2179        if self.pretty:
2180            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2181            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2182            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2183            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2184            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2185
2186        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2187        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2188        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2189
2190    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2191        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2192
2193    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2194    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2195        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2196        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2197        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2198
2199    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2200        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2201
2202    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2203        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2204        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2205
2206    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2207        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2208        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2209
2210    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2211        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2212        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2213
2214    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2215        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2216        if group_by_all is True:
2217            modifier = " ALL"
2218        elif group_by_all is False:
2219            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2220        else:
2221            modifier = ""
2222
2223        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2224
2225        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2226        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2227        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2228
2229        groupings = csv(
2230            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2231            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2232            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2233            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2234            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2235        )
2236
2237        if (
2238            expression.expressions
2239            and groupings
2240            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2241        ):
2242            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2243
2244        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2245
2246    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2247        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2248        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2249
2250    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2251        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2252        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2253        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2254        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2255        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2256        return start + connect
2257
2258    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2259        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2260
2261    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2262        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2263            side = None
2264        else:
2265            side = expression.side
2266
2267        op_sql = " ".join(
2268            op
2269            for op in (
2270                expression.method,
2271                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2272                side,
2273                expression.kind,
2274                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2275            )
2276            if op
2277        )
2278        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2279        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2280        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2281        using = expression.args.get("using")
2282
2283        if not on_sql and using:
2284            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2285
2286        this = expression.this
2287        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2288
2289        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2290        if exprs:
2291            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2292
2293        if on_sql:
2294            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2295            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2296            if using:
2297                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2298            else:
2299                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2300        elif not op_sql:
2301            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2302                return f" {this_sql}"
2303
2304            return f", {this_sql}"
2305
2306        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2307            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2308
2309        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2310        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}{pivots}"
2311
2312    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2313        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2314        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2315        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2316
2317    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2318        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2319
2320        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2321        if cross_apply is True:
2322            op = "INNER JOIN "
2323        elif cross_apply is False:
2324            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2325        else:
2326            op = ""
2327
2328        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2329
2330    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2331        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2332
2333        if expression.args.get("view"):
2334            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2335            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2336            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2337            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2338            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2339            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2340
2341        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2342        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2343
2344        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
2345        if ordinality:
2346            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
2347            alias = ""
2348
2349        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}{ordinality}"
2350
2351    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2352        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2353
2354        args = [
2355            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2356            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2357            if e
2358        ]
2359
2360        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2361        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2362        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2363        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
2364        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2365
2366        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"
2367
2368    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2369        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2370        value = expression.expression
2371        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2372        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2373        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2374        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2375
2376    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2377        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2378        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2380        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2381        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2382        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2383        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2384        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2385
2386    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2387        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2388        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2389        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2390
2391    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2392        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2393
2394    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2395        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2396            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2397            return ""
2398
2399        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2400        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2401        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2402        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2403
2404        if wait is not None:
2405            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2406                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2407            else:
2408                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2409
2410        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2411
2412    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2413        text = expression.this or ""
2414        if expression.is_string:
2415            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2416        return text
2417
2418    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2419        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2420            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2421            text = "".join(
2422                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2423            )
2424
2425        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2426            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2427        )
2428
2429    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2430        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2431        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2432        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2433        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2434        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2435        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2436        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2437        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2438        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2439        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2440        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2441
2442    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2443        return "NULL"
2444
2445    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2446        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2447
2448    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2450        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2451        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2452        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2453
2454    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2455        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2456        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2457        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2458        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2459        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2460        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2461        interpolated_values = [
2462            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2463            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2464            else self.sql(e, "this")
2465            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2466        ]
2467        interpolate = (
2468            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2469        )
2470        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2471
2472    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2473        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2474
2475    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2476        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2477
2478    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2479        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2480
2481    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2482        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2483        asc = not desc
2484
2485        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2486        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2487        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2488        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2489        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2490
2491        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2492
2493        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2494        nulls_sort_change = ""
2495        if nulls_first and (
2496            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2497        ):
2498            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2499        elif (
2500            nulls_last
2501            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2502            and not nulls_are_last
2503        ):
2504            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2505
2506        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2507        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2508            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2509            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2510                self.unsupported(
2511                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2512                )
2513                nulls_sort_change = ""
2514            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2515                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2516                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2517            ):
2518                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2519                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2520                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2521
2522                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2523                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2524                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2525                    self.unsupported(
2526                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2527                    )
2528                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2529            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2530                if expression.this.is_int:
2531                    self.unsupported(
2532                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2533                    )
2534                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2535                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2536                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2537                nulls_sort_change = ""
2538
2539        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2540        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2541
2542        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2543
2544    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2545        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2546        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2547
2548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2549
2550        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2551
2552    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2553        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2554        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2555        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2556        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2557        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2558        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2559        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2560        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2561        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2562        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2563        definition_sqls = [
2564            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2565            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2566        ]
2567        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2568        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2569        body = "".join(
2570            (
2571                partition,
2572                order,
2573                measures,
2574                rows,
2575                after,
2576                pattern,
2577                define,
2578            )
2579        )
2580        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2581        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2582        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2583
2584    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2585        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2586
2587        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2588            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2589        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2590            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2591
2592        return csv(
2593            *sqls,
2594            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2595            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2596            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2597            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2598            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2599            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2600            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2601            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2602            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2603            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2604            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2605            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2606            self.options_modifier(expression),
2607            self.for_modifiers(expression),
2608            sep="",
2609        )
2610
2611    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2612        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2613        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2614
2615    def for_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2616        for_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="for")
2617        return f"{self.sep()}FOR XML{self.seg(for_modifiers)}" if for_modifiers else ""
2618
2619    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2620        self.unsupported("Unsupported query option.")
2621        return ""
2622
2623    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2624        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2625    ) -> t.List[str]:
2626        return [
2627            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2628            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2629        ]
2630
2631    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2632        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2633        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2634        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2635
2636    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2637        into = expression.args.get("into")
2638        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2639            into.pop()
2640
2641        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2642        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2643        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2644        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2645
2646        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2647        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2648            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2649            limit.pop()
2650        else:
2651            top = ""
2652
2653        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2654
2655        if kind:
2656            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2657                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2658            else:
2659                if kind == "STRUCT":
2660                    expressions = self.expressions(
2661                        sqls=[
2662                            self.sql(
2663                                exp.Struct(
2664                                    expressions=[
2665                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2666                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2667                                        else e
2668                                        for e in expression.expressions
2669                                    ]
2670                                )
2671                            )
2672                        ]
2673                    )
2674                kind = ""
2675
2676        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2677        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2678
2679        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2680        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2681        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2682        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2683        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2684            expression,
2685            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2686            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2687            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2688        )
2689
2690        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2691        if expression.args.get("with"):
2692            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2693            expression.pop_comments()
2694
2695        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2696
2697        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2698            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2699                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2700            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2701                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2702            else:
2703                table_kind = ""
2704            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2705
2706        return sql
2707
2708    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2710        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2711        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2712
2713    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2714        if expression.expressions:
2715            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2716        return ""
2717
2718    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2719        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2720        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2721        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2722        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2723        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2724        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2725        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2726
2727    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2729        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2730
2731    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2733        kind = expression.text("kind")
2734        if kind:
2735            kind = f"{kind}."
2736        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2737
2738    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2739        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2740
2741    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2742        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2743        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2744        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2745        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2746            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2747
2748            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2749            expression.set("sample", None)
2750
2751        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2752        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2753        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2754
2755    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2756        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2757        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2758
2759    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2760        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2761
2762        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2763        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2764
2765        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2766            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2767                alias.append("columns", offset)
2768
2769        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2770            columns = alias.columns
2771            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2772        else:
2773            alias = self.sql(alias)
2774
2775        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2776        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2777            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2778        else:
2779            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2780                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2781            elif offset:
2782                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2783            else:
2784                suffix = alias
2785
2786        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2787
2788    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2789        return ""
2790
2791    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2792        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2793        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2794
2795    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2797        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2798        order = expression.args.get("order")
2799        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2800        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2801        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2802        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2803
2804        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2805
2806        first = expression.args.get("first")
2807        if first is None:
2808            first = ""
2809        else:
2810            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2811
2812        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2813            return f"{this} {alias}"
2814
2815        args = self.format_args(
2816            *[arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg], sep=" "
2817        )
2818        return f"{this} ({args})"
2819
2820    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2821        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2822        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2823
2824    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2825        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2826        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2827        end = (
2828            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2829            or "CURRENT ROW"
2830        )
2831
2832        window_spec = f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2833
2834        exclude = self.sql(expression, "exclude")
2835        if exclude:
2836            if self.SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE:
2837                window_spec += f" EXCLUDE {exclude}"
2838            else:
2839                self.unsupported("EXCLUDE clause is not supported in the WINDOW clause")
2840
2841        return window_spec
2842
2843    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2845        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2846        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2847
2848    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2850        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2851        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2852        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2853
2854    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2855        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2856    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2857        return apply_index_offset(
2858            expression.this,
2859            expression.expressions,
2860            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2861            dialect=self.dialect,
2862        )
2863
2864    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2865        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2866        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2867        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2868
2869    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2870        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2871
2872    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2874        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2875            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2876                this = self.wrap(this)
2877            return f"ANY{this}"
2878        return f"ANY {this}"
2879
2880    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2881        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2882
2883    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2886
2887        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2888            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2889            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2890
2891        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2892
2893        if default:
2894            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2895
2896        statements.append("END")
2897
2898        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2899            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2900
2901        return " ".join(statements)
2902
2903    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2904        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2905        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2906        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2907
2908    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2909        order = expression.args.get("order")
2910        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2911        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2912
2913    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2914        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2915        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2916        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2917
2918    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2919        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2920
2921        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2922            func_name = "LTRIM"
2923        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2924            func_name = "RTRIM"
2925        else:
2926            func_name = "TRIM"
2927
2928        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2929
2930    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2931        args = expression.expressions
2932        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2933            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2934
2935        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2936            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2937
2938        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2939            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2940
2941        return args
2942
2943    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2944        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2945
2946        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2947        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2948            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2949
2950        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2951
2952    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2953        return self.func(
2954            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2955        )
2956
2957    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2958        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2959        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2960
2961    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2962        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2963        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2964        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2965        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2966        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2967        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2968        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2969        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2970        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2971        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2972        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}{options}"
2973
2974    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2975        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2976        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2977        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2978        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2979
2980    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2981        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2982
2983    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2984        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2985        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2986        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2987
2988    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2989        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2990
2991    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2992        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2993
2994        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2995            path = self.escape_str(path)
2996
2997        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2998            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2999
3000        return path
3001
3002    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
3003        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
3004            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
3005            if not callable(transform):
3006                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3007                return ""
3008
3009            return transform(self, expression)
3010
3011        if isinstance(expression, int):
3012            return str(expression)
3013
3014        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
3015            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
3016            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
3017        else:
3018            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
3019            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
3020
3021        return escaped
3022
3023    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
3024        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
3025
3026    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
3027        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3028        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3029
3030        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
3031        if unique_keys is not None:
3032            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
3033        else:
3034            unique_keys = ""
3035
3036        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3037        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3038        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
3039        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
3040
3041        return self.func(
3042            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
3043            *expression.expressions,
3044            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
3045        )
3046
3047    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
3048        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
3049
3050    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
3051        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3052        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3053        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3054        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3055        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3056        return self.func(
3057            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
3058        )
3059
3060    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
3061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3062        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3063        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3064        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3065        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3066        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3067        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3068        return self.func(
3069            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
3070            this,
3071            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
3072        )
3073
3074    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
3075        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3076        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
3077        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
3078
3079        if nested_schema:
3080            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
3081
3082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3083        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3084        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3085        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
3086
3087    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
3088        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
3089
3090    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
3091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3092        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3093        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3094        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
3095        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
3096        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
3097        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
3098        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3099        return self.func(
3100            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
3101        )
3102
3103    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
3104        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3105        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3106        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3107        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
3108        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
3109        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
3110
3111    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
3112        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3113        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3114        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3115        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3116        with_ = (
3117            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3118            if expressions
3119            else ""
3120        )
3121        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
3122
3123    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
3124        query = expression.args.get("query")
3125        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
3126        field = expression.args.get("field")
3127        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3128
3129        if query:
3130            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3131        elif unnest:
3132            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3133        elif field:
3134            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3135        else:
3136            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
3137
3138        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3139
3140    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3141        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3142
3143    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3144        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3145        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3146            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3147        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3148
3149        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3150            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3151            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3152
3153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3154        if this:
3155            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3156            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3157
3158        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3159
3160    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3161        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3162
3163    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3164        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3165        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3166        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3167        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3168        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3169        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3170
3171    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3172        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3173        parent = expression.parent
3174        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3175        return self.func(
3176            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3177        )
3178
3179    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3180        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3181        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3182
3183    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3184        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3185        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3186        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3187        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3188
3189    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3190        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3191
3192    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3193        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3194        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3195        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3196
3197    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3198        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3199
3200        parent = expression.parent
3201        pivot = parent and parent.parent
3202
3203        if isinstance(pivot, exp.Pivot) and pivot.unpivot:
3204            identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3205            literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3206
3207            if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3208                alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3209            elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3210                alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3211
3212        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3213
3214    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3215        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3216
3217    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3218        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3219        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3220        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3221
3222    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3223        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3224        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3225        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3226
3227    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3228        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3229        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3230        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3231
3232    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3233        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3234
3235    def and_sql(
3236        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3237    ) -> str:
3238        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3239
3240    def or_sql(
3241        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3242    ) -> str:
3243        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3244
3245    def xor_sql(
3246        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3247    ) -> str:
3248        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3249
3250    def connector_sql(
3251        self,
3252        expression: exp.Connector,
3253        op: str,
3254        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3255    ) -> str:
3256        if stack is not None:
3257            if expression.expressions:
3258                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3259            else:
3260                stack.append(expression.right)
3261                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3262                    for comment in expression.comments:
3263                        if comment:
3264                            op += f" /*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/"
3265                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3266            return op
3267
3268        stack = [expression]
3269        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3270        ops = set()
3271
3272        while stack:
3273            node = stack.pop()
3274            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3275                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3276            else:
3277                sql = self.sql(node)
3278                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3279                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3280                else:
3281                    sqls.append(sql)
3282
3283        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3284        return sep.join(sqls)
3285
3286    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3287        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3288
3289    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3290        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3291
3292    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3293        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3294
3295    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3296        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3297
3298    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3299        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3300
3301    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3302        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3303
3304    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3305        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3306        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3307        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3308        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3309        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3310        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3311        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3312        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
3313        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"
3314
3315    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3316        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3317        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3318
3319    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3320        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3321            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3322        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3323
3324    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3325        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3326
3327    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3328        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3329        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3330        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3331        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3332        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3333        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3334
3335    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3336        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3337        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3338        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3339        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3340        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3341        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3342        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3343        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3344        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3345
3346    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3347        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3348        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3349        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3350        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3351
3352        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3353            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3354
3355        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3356
3357    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3358        return "BEGIN"
3359
3360    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3361        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3362        if chain is not None:
3363            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3364
3365        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3366
3367    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3368        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3369        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3370        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3371
3372    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3373        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3374
3375        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3376        if dtype:
3377            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3378            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3379            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3380            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3381            alter_set_type = self.ALTER_SET_TYPE + " " if self.ALTER_SET_TYPE else ""
3382            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {alter_set_type}{dtype}{collate}{using}"
3383
3384        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3385        if default:
3386            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3387
3388        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3389        if comment:
3390            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3391
3392        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3393        if visible:
3394            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET {visible}"
3395
3396        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3397        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3398
3399        if not drop and not allow_null:
3400            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3401
3402        if allow_null is not None:
3403            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3404            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3405
3406        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3407
3408    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
3409        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3410
3411        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3412        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3413
3414        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"
3415
3416    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3417        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3418        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3419            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3420        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3421
3422    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3423        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3425        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3426        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3427        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3428
3429    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3430        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3431            # Remove db from tables
3432            expression = expression.transform(
3433                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3434            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3436        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3437
3438    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3439        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3440        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3441        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3442        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3443
3444    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3445        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3446        if self.ALTER_SET_WRAPPED:
3447            exprs = f"({exprs})"
3448
3449        return f"SET {exprs}"
3450
3451    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3452        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3453
3454        if not self.dialect.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_REQUIRED_FOR_EACH_COLUMN and isinstance(
3455            actions[0], exp.ColumnDef
3456        ):
3457            actions_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3458            actions_sql = f"ADD {actions_sql}"
3459        else:
3460            actions_list = []
3461            for action in actions:
3462                if isinstance(action, (exp.ColumnDef, exp.Schema)):
3463                    action_sql = self.add_column_sql(action)
3464                else:
3465                    action_sql = self.sql(action)
3466                    if isinstance(action, exp.Query):
3467                        action_sql = f"AS {action_sql}"
3468
3469                actions_list.append(action_sql)
3470
3471            actions_sql = self.format_args(*actions_list)
3472
3473        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3474        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3475        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3476        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3477        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3478        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3479        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3480        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3481
3482        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions_sql}{not_valid}{options}"
3483
3484    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
3485        sql = self.sql(expression)
3486        if isinstance(expression, exp.Schema):
3487            column_text = " COLUMNS"
3488        elif isinstance(expression, exp.ColumnDef) and self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3489            column_text = " COLUMN"
3490        else:
3491            column_text = ""
3492
3493        return f"ADD{column_text} {sql}"
3494
3495    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3496        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3497        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3498        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3499
3500    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3501        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3502
3503    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3504        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3505
3506        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3507            case = exp.case()
3508            for arg in expression.expressions:
3509                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3510            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3511
3512        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3513
3514        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3515        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3516        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3517
3518    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3519        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3520
3521    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3522        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3523
3524    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3525        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3526        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3527        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3528        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3529
3530    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3531        return self.sql(
3532            exp.Cast(
3533                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3534                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3535            )
3536        )
3537
3538    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3539        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3540            return self.func(
3541                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3542            )
3543        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3544
3545    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3546        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3547
3548        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3549            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3550
3551        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3552            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3553                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3554
3555        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3556            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3557                return self.sql(
3558                    exp.cast(
3559                        l / r,
3560                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3561                    )
3562                )
3563
3564        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3565
3566    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
3567        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
3568        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
3569        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))
3570
3571    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3572        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3573
3574    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3575        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3576
3577    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3578        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3579
3580    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3581        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3582
3583    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3584        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3585
3586    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3587        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3588
3589    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3590        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3591
3592    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3593        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3594
3595    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3596        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3597
3598    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3599        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3600
3601    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3602        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3603
3604    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3605        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3606            return self.sql(
3607                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3608            )
3609        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3610
3611    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3612        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3613
3614    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3615        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3616
3617    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3618        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3619
3620    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3621        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3622
3623    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3624        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3625
3626    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3627        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3628
3629    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3630        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3631
3632    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3633        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3634
3635    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3636        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3637
3638    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3639        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3640
3641    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3642        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3643
3644    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3645        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3646
3647    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3648        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3649
3650    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
3651        return self.cast_sql(expression)
3652
3653    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3654        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3655            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3656            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3657
3658        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3659
3660    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3661        this = expression.this
3662        expr = expression.expression
3663
3664        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3665            this, expr = expr, this
3666        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3667            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3668                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3669
3670            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3671
3672        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3673
3674    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3675        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3676        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3677        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3678        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3679        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3680
3681    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3682        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3683        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3684        binary_type = type(expression)
3685
3686        while stack:
3687            node = stack.pop()
3688
3689            if type(node) is binary_type:
3690                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3691                if op_func:
3692                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3693
3694                stack.append(node.right)
3695                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3696                stack.append(node.left)
3697            else:
3698                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3699
3700        return "".join(sqls)
3701
3702    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
3703        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
3704        if to_clause:
3705            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
3706
3707        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3708
3709    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3710        args = []
3711
3712        for key in expression.arg_types:
3713            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3714
3715            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3716                for value in arg_value:
3717                    args.append(value)
3718            elif arg_value is not None:
3719                args.append(arg_value)
3720
3721        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3722            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3723        else:
3724            name = expression.sql_name()
3725
3726        return self.func(name, *args)
3727
3728    def func(
3729        self,
3730        name: str,
3731        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3732        prefix: str = "(",
3733        suffix: str = ")",
3734        normalize: bool = True,
3735    ) -> str:
3736        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3737        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3738
3739    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3740        arg_sqls = tuple(
3741            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3742        )
3743        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3744            return self.indent(
3745                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3746            )
3747        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3748
3749    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3750        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3751
3752    def format_time(
3753        self,
3754        expression: exp.Expression,
3755        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3756        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3757    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3758        return format_time(
3759            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3760            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3761            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3762        )
3763
3764    def expressions(
3765        self,
3766        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3767        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3768        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3769        flat: bool = False,
3770        indent: bool = True,
3771        skip_first: bool = False,
3772        skip_last: bool = False,
3773        sep: str = ", ",
3774        prefix: str = "",
3775        dynamic: bool = False,
3776        new_line: bool = False,
3777    ) -> str:
3778        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3779
3780        if not expressions:
3781            return ""
3782
3783        if flat:
3784            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3785
3786        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3787        result_sqls = []
3788
3789        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3790            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3791            if not sql:
3792                continue
3793
3794            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3795
3796            if self.pretty:
3797                if self.leading_comma:
3798                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3799                else:
3800                    result_sqls.append(
3801                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3802                    )
3803            else:
3804                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3805
3806        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3807            if new_line:
3808                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3809                result_sqls.append("")
3810            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3811        else:
3812            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3813
3814        return (
3815            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3816            if indent
3817            else result_sql
3818        )
3819
3820    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3821        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3822        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3823        if flat:
3824            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3825        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3826
3827    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3828        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3829        if not property_name:
3830            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3831        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3832
3833    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3834        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3835
3836    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3837        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3838
3839    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3841        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3842        expressions = (
3843            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3844        )
3845        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3846
3847    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3849        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3850        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3851
3852    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3853        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3854
3855    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3856        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3857        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3858        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3859        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3860
3861        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3862        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3863            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3864            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3865            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3866            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3867        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3868            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3869                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3870            else:
3871                then = f"UPDATE SET{self.sep()}{self.expressions(then_expression)}"
3872        else:
3873            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3874        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3875
3876    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3877        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3878
3879    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3880        table = expression.this
3881        table_alias = ""
3882
3883        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3884        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3885            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3886            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3887
3888        this = self.sql(table)
3889        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3890        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3891        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3892
3893        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3894        if returning:
3895            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3896
3897        sep = self.sep()
3898
3899        return self.prepend_ctes(
3900            expression,
3901            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3902        )
3903
3904    @unsupported_args("format")
3905    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3906        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3907
3908    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3909        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3910            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3911            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3912
3913        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3914        if not fmt:
3915            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3916            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3917
3918        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3919
3920    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3922        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3923        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3924        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3925        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3926
3927    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3929        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3930        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3931        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3932
3933    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3934        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3935
3936    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3937        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3938
3939    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3940    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3941        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3942
3943    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3944    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3945        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3946        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3947        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3948        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3949        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3950        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3951        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3952
3953    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3954        return ""
3955
3956    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3957        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3958        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3959        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3960        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3961        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3962
3963    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3965        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3966
3967        if having:
3968            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3969
3970        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3971
3972    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3973        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3974        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3975        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3976        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3977        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3978        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3979        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3980        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3981        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3982        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3983        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3984        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3985        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3986
3987    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3988        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3989        if key_block_size:
3990            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3991
3992        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3993        if using:
3994            return f"USING {using}"
3995
3996        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3997        if parser:
3998            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3999
4000        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
4001        if comment:
4002            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
4003
4004        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
4005        if visible is not None:
4006            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
4007
4008        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
4009        if engine_attr:
4010            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
4011
4012        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
4013        if secondary_engine_attr:
4014            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
4015
4016        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
4017        return ""
4018
4019    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
4020        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
4021        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
4022
4023    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
4024        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4025        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
4026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4027        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4028        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
4029        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
4030        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4031        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4032        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4033        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4034        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
4035
4036    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
4037        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
4038            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4039
4040        case = exp.Case().when(
4041            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
4042            expression.args["true"],
4043            copy=False,
4044        )
4045        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
4046        if else_cond:
4047            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
4048
4049        return self.sql(case)
4050
4051    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
4052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4053        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4054        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
4055        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
4056        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
4057        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
4058
4059    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
4060        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
4061
4062    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
4063        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4064
4065    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
4066        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
4067        model = f"MODEL {model}"
4068        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4069        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
4070        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
4071        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
4072
4073    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
4074        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4075        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4076        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
4077
4078    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
4079        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4080        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
4081        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
4082
4083    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
4084        arg = expression.this
4085        if not arg.type:
4086            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
4087
4088            arg = annotate_types(arg, dialect=self.dialect)
4089
4090        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
4091            return self.sql(arg)
4092
4093        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
4094        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
4095
4096    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
4097        this = expression.this
4098        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4099
4100        if time_format:
4101            return self.sql(
4102                exp.cast(
4103                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4104                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
4105                )
4106            )
4107
4108        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
4109            return self.sql(this)
4110
4111        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
4112
4113    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
4114        this = expression.this
4115        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
4116            return self.sql(this)
4117
4118        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
4119
4120    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
4121        this = expression.this
4122        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
4123            return self.sql(this)
4124
4125        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
4126
4127    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
4128        this = expression.this
4129        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4130
4131        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
4132            return self.sql(
4133                exp.cast(
4134                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4135                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
4136                )
4137            )
4138
4139        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
4140            return self.sql(this)
4141
4142        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
4143
4144    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
4145        return self.sql(
4146            exp.func(
4147                "DATEDIFF",
4148                expression.this,
4149                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
4150                "day",
4151            )
4152        )
4153
4154    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
4155        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
4156            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4157
4158        unit = expression.text("unit")
4159        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
4160            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
4161
4162        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
4163
4164    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
4165        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
4166
4167        return self.func(
4168            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
4169        )
4170
4171    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
4172        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
4173            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
4174            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
4175            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
4176            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
4177
4178        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
4179
4180        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
4181        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
4182            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4183
4184        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4185
4186    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4187        expression.set(
4188            "expressions",
4189            [
4190                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4191                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4192                else e
4193                for e in expression.expressions
4194            ],
4195        )
4196
4197        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4198
4199    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4200        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4201        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4202
4203        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4204
4205    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4206        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4207        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4208
4209        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4210
4211        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4212        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4213
4214        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4215        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4216
4217        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4218        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4219
4220        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4221        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4222
4223        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4224
4225    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4226    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4227    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4228        to = expression.this
4229        value = expression.expression
4230        style = expression.args.get("style")
4231        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4232        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4233
4234        if not to or not value:
4235            return ""
4236
4237        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4238        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4239            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4240
4241        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4242        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4243
4244        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4245        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4246            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4247
4248            style_value = style.name
4249            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4250            if not converted_style:
4251                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4252
4253            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4254
4255            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4256                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4257            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4258                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4259            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4260                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4261            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4262                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4263
4264        if not transformed:
4265            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4266
4267        return self.sql(transformed)
4268
4269    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4270        this = expression.this
4271        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4272            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4273            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4274
4275        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4276            return f".{this}"
4277
4278        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4279        return (
4280            f"[{this}]"
4281            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4282            else f".{this}"
4283        )
4284
4285    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4286        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4287        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4288
4289    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4290        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4291            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4292
4293            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4294
4295        return expression
4296
4297    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4298        this = expression.this
4299        if isinstance(this, self.RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS):
4300            self.unsupported(
4301                f"RESPECT/IGNORE NULLS is not supported for {type(this).key} in {self.dialect.__class__.__name__}"
4302            )
4303            return self.sql(this)
4304
4305        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4306            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4307            mods = sorted(
4308                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4309                key=lambda x: 0
4310                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4311                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4312            )
4313
4314            if mods:
4315                mod = mods[0]
4316                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4317                this.meta["inline"] = True
4318                mod.this.replace(this)
4319                return self.sql(expression.this)
4320
4321            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4322
4323            if agg_func:
4324                agg_func_sql = self.sql(agg_func, comment=False)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4325                return self.maybe_comment(agg_func_sql, comments=agg_func.comments)
4326
4327        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4328
4329    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4330        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4331        if self.pretty:
4332            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4333        return string
4334
4335    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4336        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4337
4338        if expression.expressions:
4339            upper = option.upper()
4340
4341            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4342            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4343
4344            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4345            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4346            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4347            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4348
4349        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4350
4351        if not value:
4352            return option
4353
4354        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4355
4356        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4357
4358    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4359        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4360        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4361            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4362            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4363            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4364        else:
4365            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4366            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4367            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4368
4369        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4370        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4371
4372        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4373        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4374
4375        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4376        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4377
4378        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4379        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4380
4381        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4382
4383    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4385        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4386
4387        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4388        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4389        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4390        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4391
4392        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4393        params = self.expressions(
4394            expression,
4395            key="params",
4396            sep=sep,
4397            new_line=True,
4398            skip_last=True,
4399            skip_first=True,
4400            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4401        )
4402
4403        if params:
4404            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4405                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4406            elif not self.pretty:
4407                params = f" {params}"
4408
4409        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4410
4411    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4412        return ""
4413
4414    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4415        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4416        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4417        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4418        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4419        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4420
4421        if filter_col or retention_period:
4422            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4423
4424        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4425
4426    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4427        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4428    ) -> str:
4429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4430        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4431        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4432        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4433
4434    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4436        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4437        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4438
4439    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4440        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4441
4442    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4444        expr = expression.expression
4445
4446        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4447            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4448            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4449        else:
4450            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4451
4452        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4453
4454    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4455        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4456            return self.sql(expression.this)
4457
4458        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4459
4460    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4461        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4462        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4463
4464        if lower and upper:
4465            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4466        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4467
4468    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4469        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4470        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4471        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4472        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4473        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4474        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4475
4476        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4477
4478    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4479        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4480
4481        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4482        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4483            fill_pattern = "' '"
4484
4485        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4486
4487    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4488        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4489        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4490
4491    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4492        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4493
4494        parent = expression.parent
4495        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4496            parent = parent.parent
4497
4498        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4499            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4500
4501        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4502            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4503
4504        return self.sql(generate_series)
4505
4506    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4507        exprs = expression.expressions
4508        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4509            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4510        else:
4511            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4512
4513        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4514
4515    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4516        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4517            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4518
4519        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4520        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4521        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4522
4523        if source_tz and timestamp:
4524            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4525                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4526            )
4527
4528        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4529
4530        return self.sql(expr)
4531
4532    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4534        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4535
4536        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4537
4538        if _with is None:
4539            with_sql = ""
4540        elif not _with:
4541            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4542        else:
4543            with_sql = " WITH"
4544
4545        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4546
4547        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4548
4549    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4550        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4551            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4552
4553        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4554        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4555        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4556
4557        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4558        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4559
4560        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4561
4562    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4563        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4564        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4565        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4566        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4567        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4568
4569    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4570        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4571        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4572        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4573        return res
4574
4575    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4576        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4577        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4578        empty = (
4579            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4580            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4581            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4582        )
4583
4584        error = expression.args.get("error")
4585        error = (
4586            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4587            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4588            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4589        )
4590
4591        if error and empty:
4592            error = (
4593                f"{empty} {error}"
4594                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4595                else f"{error} {empty}"
4596            )
4597            empty = ""
4598
4599        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4600
4601        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4602
4603    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
4604        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
4605        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"
4606
4607    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4609        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4610
4611        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4612        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4613
4614        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4615        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4616
4617        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4618
4619        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4620
4621    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4622        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4623
4624        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4625        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4626        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4627            parent = expression.parent
4628            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4629                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4630                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4631            else:
4632                this = expression.this
4633                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4634                if this.find(exp.Column):
4635                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4636                    this_sql = (
4637                        self.expressions(this)
4638                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4639                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4640                    )
4641
4642                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4643
4644        return array_agg
4645
4646    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4648        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4649
4650        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4651
4652    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4653        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4654
4655        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4656        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4657
4658        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4659        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4660
4661        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4662
4663        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4664
4665        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4666
4667    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4669        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4670        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4671
4672        return f"{this}{columns}"
4673
4674    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4676
4677        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4678        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4679
4680        return f"{kind}{this}"
4681
4682    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4683        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4684        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4685            func = f"*{func}"
4686
4687        return func
4688
4689    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4691        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4692        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4693        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4694        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4695
4696        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4697
4698    @unsupported_args("format")
4699    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4700        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4701
4702    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4703        this = expression.this
4704        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4705
4706        if zone:
4707            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4708            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4709            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4710            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4711                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4712            )
4713
4714        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4715
4716    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4717        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4718            return self.sql(
4719                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4720            )
4721
4722        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4723
4724    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4725        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4726        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4727        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4728        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4729
4730    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4731        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4732            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4733
4734        start_ts = exp.cast(
4735            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4736        )
4737
4738        return self.sql(
4739            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4740        )
4741
4742    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4743        dim = expression.expression
4744
4745        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4746        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4747            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4748                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4749            dim = None
4750
4751        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4752        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4753            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4754
4755        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4756
4757    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4759        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4760        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4761        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4762
4763        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4764
4765    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4767        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4768
4769        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4770
4771    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4772        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4773        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4774        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4775        return f"{this}{value}"
4776
4777    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4778        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4779        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4780            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4781
4782        return self.func(
4783            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4784            this_sql,
4785            expression.args.get("time"),
4786            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4787            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4788        )
4789
4790    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4791        return (
4792            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4793        )
4794
4795    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4796        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4797        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4798
4799        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4800        if properties:
4801            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4802
4803        return encode
4804
4805    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4807        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4808
4809        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4810        if column_def:
4811            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4812
4813        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4814        if alias:
4815            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4816
4817        return include
4818
4819    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4820        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4821        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4822
4823    def xmlkeyvalueoption_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLKeyValueOption) -> str:
4824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4825        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4826        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else ""
4827        return f"{this}{expr}"
4828
4829    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4830        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4831        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4832        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4833
4834    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4835        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4836    ) -> str:
4837        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4838        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4839
4840        every = expression.args["every"]
4841        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4842            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4843
4844        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4845
4846    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4847        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4848        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4849
4850        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4851
4852    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
4853        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4854        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
4855        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
4856
4857    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
4858        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4859        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4860        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4862        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4863        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4864        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
4865        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
4866
4867    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
4868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4869        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4870        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4871        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4872        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
4873        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
4874        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
4875
4876    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
4877        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4878        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4879        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
4880
4881    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
4882        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4883        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
4884
4885    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
4886        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4888        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4889        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4890        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
4891
4892    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
4893        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4894        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4895        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4896        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4898        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4899        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
4900        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
4901        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
4902        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
4903        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4904        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4905        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4906        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4907        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
4908
4909    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4911        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
4912        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
4913        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4914        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4915        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4916        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4917        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4918        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
4919
4920    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
4921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4922        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"
4923
4924    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
4925        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4926        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
4927        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
4928        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
4929        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"
4930
4931    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
4932        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
4933
4934    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
4935        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
4936        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
4937        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
4938
4939        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4940        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
4941            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
4942
4943        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"
4944
4945    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
4946        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4948        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4949        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
4950        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
4951
4952        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"
4953
4954        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"
4955
4956    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4957        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
4958        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"
4959
4960    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
4961        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
4962
4963    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
4964        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)
4965
4966    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4967        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)
4968
4969    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
4970        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
4971        return ""
4972
4973    def get_put_sql(self, expression: exp.Put | exp.Get) -> str:
4974        # Snowflake GET/PUT statements:
4975        #   PUT <file> <internalStage> <properties>
4976        #   GET <internalStage> <file> <properties>
4977        props = expression.args.get("properties")
4978        props_sql = self.properties(props, prefix=" ", sep=" ", wrapped=False) if props else ""
4979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4980        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
4981
4982        if isinstance(expression, exp.Put):
4983            return f"PUT {this} {target}{props_sql}"
4984        else:
4985            return f"GET {target} {this}{props_sql}"
4986
4987    def translatecharacters_sql(self, expression: exp.TranslateCharacters):
4988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4989        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4990        with_error = " WITH ERROR" if expression.args.get("with_error") else ""
4991        return f"TRANSLATE({this} USING {expr}{with_error})"