sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 118        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
 119        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 120        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 121        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 124        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 125        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 126        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 130        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 131        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.ConvertToCharset: lambda self, e: self.func(
 135            "CONVERT", e.this, e.args["dest"], e.args.get("source")
 136        ),
 137        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 138        exp.CredentialsProperty: lambda self,
 139        e: f"CREDENTIALS=({self.expressions(e, 'expressions', sep=' ')})",
 140        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 143        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 144        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 145        exp.EnviromentProperty: lambda self, e: f"ENVIRONMENT ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 147        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 148        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 149        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 150        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 151        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 152        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 153        exp.Get: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
 154        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 155        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 156        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 157        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 158        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 161        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 162        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 163        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 164        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 165        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 166        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 167        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 168        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 169        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 170        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 171        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 172        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 173        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 176        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 177        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.PartitionedByBucket: lambda self, e: self.func("BUCKET", e.this, e.expression),
 179        exp.PartitionByTruncate: lambda self, e: self.func("TRUNCATE", e.this, e.expression),
 180        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 181        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 182        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 183        exp.Put: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
 184        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 185        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 187            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 188        ),
 189        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 191        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 193        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 194        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 195        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 196        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 197        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 198        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 199        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 200        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 201        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 202        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 203        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.TableColumn: lambda self, e: self.sql(e.this),
 205        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 206        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 207        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 208        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 209        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 210        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 211        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 212        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 213        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 214        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: lambda self, e: f"USING TEMPLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 215        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 216        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 217        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 218        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 219        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 220        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 221        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 222        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 223        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 224        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 225        exp.ForceProperty: lambda *_: "FORCE",
 226    }
 227
 228    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 229    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 230    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 231    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 232
 233    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 234    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 235    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 236
 237    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 238    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 239
 240    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 241    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 242
 243    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 244    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 245
 246    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 247    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 248
 249    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 250    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 251
 252    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 253    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 254
 255    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 256    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 257
 258    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 259    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 260
 261    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 262    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 263
 264    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 265    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 266
 267    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 268    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 269
 270    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 271    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 272
 273    # Whether join hints should be generated
 274    JOIN_HINTS = True
 275
 276    # Whether table hints should be generated
 277    TABLE_HINTS = True
 278
 279    # Whether query hints should be generated
 280    QUERY_HINTS = True
 281
 282    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 283    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 284
 285    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 286    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 287
 288    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 289    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 290
 291    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 292    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 293
 294    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 295    RETURNING_END = True
 296
 297    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 298    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 299
 300    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 301    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 302
 303    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 304    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 305
 306    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 307    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 308
 309    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 310    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 311    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 312    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 313
 314    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 315    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 316
 317    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 318    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 319
 320    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 321    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 322
 323    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 324    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 325
 326    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 327    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 328
 329    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 330    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 331
 332    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 333    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 334
 335    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 336    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 337
 338    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 339    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 340
 341    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 342    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 343
 344    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 345    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 346
 347    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 348    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 349
 350    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 351    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 352
 353    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 354    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 355
 356    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 357    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 358
 359    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 360    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 361
 362    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 363    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 364
 365    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 366    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 367
 368    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 369    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 370
 371    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 372    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 373
 374    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 375    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 376
 377    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 378    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 379
 380    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 381    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 382
 383    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 384    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 385
 386    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 387    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 388
 389    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 390    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 391    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 392
 393    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 394    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 395
 396    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 397    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 398
 399    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 400    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 401
 402    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 403    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 404
 405    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 406    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 407
 408    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 409    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 410
 411    # Whether EXCLUDE in window specification is supported
 412    SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE = False
 413
 414    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 415    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 416    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 417    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 418
 419    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 420    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 421
 422    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 423    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 424
 425    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 426    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 427
 428    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 429    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 430
 431    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 432    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 433
 434    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 435    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 436
 437    # The HEX function name
 438    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 439
 440    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 441    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 442
 443    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 444    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 445
 446    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 447    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 448
 449    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 450    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 451
 452    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 453    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 454
 455    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 456    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 457
 458    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 459    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 460
 461    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 462    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 463
 464    # Whether to wrap <props> in `AlterSet`, e.g., ALTER ... SET (<props>)
 465    ALTER_SET_WRAPPED = False
 466
 467    # Whether to normalize the date parts in EXTRACT(<date_part> FROM <expr>) into a common representation
 468    # For instance, to extract the day of week in ISO semantics, one can use ISODOW, DAYOFWEEKISO etc depending on the dialect.
 469    # TODO: The normalization should be done by default once we've tested it across all dialects.
 470    NORMALIZE_EXTRACT_DATE_PARTS = False
 471
 472    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 473    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 474
 475    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 476    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 477
 478    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
 479    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"
 480
 481    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 482    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 483    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 484    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 485    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 486
 487    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 488        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 489        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 490        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 491        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 492        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 493        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 494        exp.DataType.Type.BLOB: "VARBINARY",
 495        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 496        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 497        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 498        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 499        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 500        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 501    }
 502
 503    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 504        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 505        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 506        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 507        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 508        "DAYS": "DAY",
 509        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 510        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 511        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 512        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 513    }
 514
 515    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 516        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 517        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 518        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 519        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 520            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 521            if e.args.get("windows")
 522            else ""
 523        ),
 524        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 525    }
 526
 527    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 528
 529    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 530
 531    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 532    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 533
 534    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 535
 536    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 537        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 539        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 543        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 545        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 552        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 554        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 557        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 561        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.EnviromentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 565        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 566        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 567        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 568        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 569        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 570        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 572        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 575        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 576        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 578        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 580        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 581        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 582        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 583        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 584        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 585        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 586        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 587        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 588        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 589        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 590        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 591        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 592        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 593        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 594        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 595        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 596        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 597        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 598        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 599        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 600        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 601        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 602        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 603        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 604        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 605        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 606        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 607        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 608        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 609        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 610        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 611        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 612        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 613        exp.StorageHandlerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 614        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 615        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 616        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 617        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 618        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 619        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 620        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 621        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 622        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 623        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 624        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 625        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 626        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 627        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 628        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 629        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 630        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 631        exp.ForceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 632    }
 633
 634    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 635    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 636
 637    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 638    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 639        exp.Command,
 640        exp.Create,
 641        exp.Describe,
 642        exp.Delete,
 643        exp.Drop,
 644        exp.From,
 645        exp.Insert,
 646        exp.Join,
 647        exp.MultitableInserts,
 648        exp.Select,
 649        exp.SetOperation,
 650        exp.Update,
 651        exp.Where,
 652        exp.With,
 653    )
 654
 655    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 656    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 657        exp.Binary,
 658        exp.SetOperation,
 659    )
 660
 661    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 662    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 663        exp.Column,
 664        exp.Literal,
 665        exp.Neg,
 666        exp.Paren,
 667    )
 668
 669    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 670        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 671        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 672        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 673        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 674    }
 675
 676    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 677    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 678
 679    RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = ()
 680
 681    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 682
 683    __slots__ = (
 684        "pretty",
 685        "identify",
 686        "normalize",
 687        "pad",
 688        "_indent",
 689        "normalize_functions",
 690        "unsupported_level",
 691        "max_unsupported",
 692        "leading_comma",
 693        "max_text_width",
 694        "comments",
 695        "dialect",
 696        "unsupported_messages",
 697        "_escaped_quote_end",
 698        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 699        "_next_name",
 700        "_identifier_start",
 701        "_identifier_end",
 702        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 703    )
 704
 705    def __init__(
 706        self,
 707        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 708        identify: str | bool = False,
 709        normalize: bool = False,
 710        pad: int = 2,
 711        indent: int = 2,
 712        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 713        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 714        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 715        leading_comma: bool = False,
 716        max_text_width: int = 80,
 717        comments: bool = True,
 718        dialect: DialectType = None,
 719    ):
 720        import sqlglot
 721        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 722
 723        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 724        self.identify = identify
 725        self.normalize = normalize
 726        self.pad = pad
 727        self._indent = indent
 728        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 729        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 730        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 731        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 732        self.comments = comments
 733        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 734
 735        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 736        self.normalize_functions = (
 737            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 738        )
 739
 740        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 741        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 742            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 743        )
 744        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 745
 746        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 747
 748        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 749        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 750
 751        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 752
 753    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 754        """
 755        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 756
 757        Args:
 758            expression: The syntax tree.
 759            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 760                it is safer to copy.
 761
 762        Returns:
 763            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 764        """
 765        if copy:
 766            expression = expression.copy()
 767
 768        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 769
 770        self.unsupported_messages = []
 771        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 772
 773        if self.pretty:
 774            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 775
 776        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 777            return sql
 778
 779        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 780            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 781                logger.warning(msg)
 782        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 783            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 784
 785        return sql
 786
 787    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 788        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 789        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 790
 791        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 792            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 793
 794            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 795
 796        return expression
 797
 798    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 799        if (
 800            not expression.parent
 801            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 802            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 803        ):
 804            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 805
 806            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 807        return expression
 808
 809    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 810        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 811            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 812        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 813
 814    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 815        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 816
 817    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 818        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 819
 820    def sanitize_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 821        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 822        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 823
 824        if not self.dialect.tokenizer_class.NESTED_COMMENTS:
 825            # Necessary workaround to avoid syntax errors due to nesting: /* ... */ ... */
 826            comment = comment.replace("*/", "* /")
 827
 828        return comment
 829
 830    def maybe_comment(
 831        self,
 832        sql: str,
 833        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 834        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 835        separated: bool = False,
 836    ) -> str:
 837        comments = (
 838            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 839            if self.comments
 840            else None
 841        )
 842
 843        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 844            return sql
 845
 846        comments_sql = " ".join(
 847            f"/*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 848        )
 849
 850        if not comments_sql:
 851            return sql
 852
 853        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 854
 855        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 856            return (
 857                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 858                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 859                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 860            )
 861
 862        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 863
 864    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 865        this_sql = (
 866            self.sql(expression)
 867            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 868            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 869        )
 870        if not this_sql:
 871            return "()"
 872
 873        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 874        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 875
 876    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 877        original = self.identify
 878        self.identify = False
 879        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 880        self.identify = original
 881        return result
 882
 883    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 884        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 885            return name.upper()
 886        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 887            return name.lower()
 888        return name
 889
 890    def indent(
 891        self,
 892        sql: str,
 893        level: int = 0,
 894        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 895        skip_first: bool = False,
 896        skip_last: bool = False,
 897    ) -> str:
 898        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 899            return sql
 900
 901        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 902        lines = sql.split("\n")
 903
 904        return "\n".join(
 905            (
 906                line
 907                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 908                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 909            )
 910            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 911        )
 912
 913    def sql(
 914        self,
 915        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 916        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 917        comment: bool = True,
 918    ) -> str:
 919        if not expression:
 920            return ""
 921
 922        if isinstance(expression, str):
 923            return expression
 924
 925        if key:
 926            value = expression.args.get(key)
 927            if value:
 928                return self.sql(value)
 929            return ""
 930
 931        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 932
 933        if callable(transform):
 934            sql = transform(self, expression)
 935        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 936            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 937
 938            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 939                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 940            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 941                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 942            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 943                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 944            else:
 945                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 946        else:
 947            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 948
 949        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 950
 951    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 952        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 953        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 954        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 955
 956    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 957        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 958        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 959        options = expression.args.get("options")
 960        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 961        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 962        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 963        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 964        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 965
 966    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 967        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 968            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 969        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 970        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 971
 972    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 973        return ".".join(
 974            self.sql(part)
 975            for part in (
 976                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 977                expression.args.get("db"),
 978                expression.args.get("table"),
 979                expression.args.get("this"),
 980            )
 981            if part
 982        )
 983
 984    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 985        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 986
 987        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 988            join_mark = ""
 989            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 990
 991        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 992
 993    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 995        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 996        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 997        return f"{position}{this}"
 998
 999    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
1000        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
1001        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1002        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
1003        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1004        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
1005        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
1006        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
1007        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
1008
1009        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
1010            kind = ""
1011
1012        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
1013
1014    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
1015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1016        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
1017        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
1018
1019    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
1020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1021        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
1022            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
1023        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
1024            persisted = " PERSISTED"
1025        else:
1026            persisted = ""
1027
1028        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
1029
1030    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
1031        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
1032
1033    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
1034        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1035            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
1036        else:
1037            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1038
1039        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
1040
1041    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
1042        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
1043    ) -> str:
1044        this = ""
1045        if expression.this is not None:
1046            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1047            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1048
1049        start = expression.args.get("start")
1050        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1051        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1052        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1053        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1054        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1055        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1056        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1057        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1058        cycle_sql = ""
1059
1060        if cycle is not None:
1061            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1062            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1063
1064        sequence_opts = ""
1065        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1066            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1067            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1068
1069        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1070        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1071
1072        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1073
1074    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1075        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1076    ) -> str:
1077        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1078        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1079        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1080
1081    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1082        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1083    ) -> str:
1084        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1085
1086    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1087        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1088
1089    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1090        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1091        if desc is not None:
1092            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1093        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1094        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1095        return f"PRIMARY KEY{options}"
1096
1097    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1099        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1100        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1101        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1102        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1103        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1104        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1105        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1106        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1107        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}{options}"
1108
1109    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1110        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1111
1112    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1113        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1114        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1115        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1116        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1117
1118        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1119
1120        properties_sql = ""
1121        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1122            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1123        ):
1124            properties_sql = self.sql(
1125                exp.Properties(
1126                    expressions=[
1127                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1128                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1129                    ]
1130                )
1131            )
1132
1133            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1134                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1135            elif not self.pretty:
1136                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1137                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1138
1139        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1140        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1141
1142        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1143        if expression_sql:
1144            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1145
1146            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1147                postalias_props_sql = ""
1148                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1149                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1150                        exp.Properties(
1151                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1152                        ),
1153                        wrapped=False,
1154                    )
1155                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1156                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1157
1158        postindex_props_sql = ""
1159        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1160            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1161                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1162                wrapped=False,
1163                prefix=" ",
1164            )
1165
1166        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1167        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1168        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1169
1170        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1171        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1172        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1173
1174        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1175        if clustered is None:
1176            clustered_sql = ""
1177        elif clustered:
1178            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1179        else:
1180            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1181
1182        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1183        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1184            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1185                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1186                sep=" ",
1187                prefix=" ",
1188                wrapped=False,
1189            )
1190
1191        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1192
1193        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1194        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1195            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1196                exp.Properties(
1197                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1198                ),
1199                sep=" ",
1200                prefix=" ",
1201                wrapped=False,
1202            )
1203
1204        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1205        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1206        no_schema_binding = (
1207            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1208        )
1209
1210        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1211        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1212
1213        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1214            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1215        else:
1216            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1217
1218        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1219        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1220
1221    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1222        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1223        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1224        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1225        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1226        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1227        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1228        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1229        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1230        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1231        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1232
1233        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1234        if cache is None:
1235            cache_str = ""
1236        elif cache is True:
1237            cache_str = " CACHE"
1238        else:
1239            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1240
1241        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1242        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1243
1244        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1245
1246    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1247        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1248        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1249        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1250        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1251
1252    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1253        style = expression.args.get("style")
1254        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1255        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1256        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1257        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1258        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1259
1260        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1261
1262    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1263        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1264        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1265
1266    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1267        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1268        if with_:
1269            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1270        return sql
1271
1272    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1273        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1274        recursive = (
1275            "RECURSIVE "
1276            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1277            else ""
1278        )
1279        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
1280        search = f" {search}" if search else ""
1281
1282        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"
1283
1284    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1285        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1286        if alias:
1287            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1288
1289        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1290
1291        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1292        if materialized is False:
1293            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1294        elif materialized:
1295            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1296
1297        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1298
1299    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1300        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1301        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1302        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1303
1304        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1305            columns = ""
1306            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1307
1308        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1309            alias = self._next_name()
1310
1311        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1312
1313    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1315        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1316            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1317        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1318
1319    def hexstring_sql(
1320        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
1321    ) -> str:
1322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1323        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")
1324
1325        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
1326            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
1327        ):
1328            # Integer representation will be returned if:
1329            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
1330            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
1331            return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1332
1333        if not is_integer_type:
1334            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
1335            if binary_function_repr:
1336                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
1337                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
1338            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
1339                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
1340                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")
1341
1342        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1343
1344    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1346        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1347            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1348        return this
1349
1350    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1352        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1353
1354        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1355            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1356            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1357        else:
1358            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1359            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1360
1361        if escape:
1362            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1363            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1364        else:
1365            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1366            escape_sql = ""
1367
1368        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1369            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1370
1371        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1372
1373    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1374        string = expression.this
1375        if "\\" in self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES:
1376            string = string.replace("\\", "\\\\")
1377
1378        string = self.escape_str(string, escape_backslash=False)
1379        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1380
1381    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1383        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1384        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1385        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1386
1387    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1388        nested = ""
1389        values = ""
1390        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1391
1392        type_value = expression.this
1393        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1394            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1395        else:
1396            type_sql = (
1397                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1398                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1399                else type_value
1400            )
1401
1402        if interior:
1403            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1404                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1405                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1406                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1407                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1408                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1409            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1410                nested = f" {interior}"
1411            else:
1412                nested = f"({interior})"
1413
1414        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1415        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1416            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1417            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1418        ):
1419            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1420
1421        return type_sql
1422
1423    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1424        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1425        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1426        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1427        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1428
1429    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1431        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1432        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1433        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1434        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1435        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1436        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1437        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1438        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1439        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1440        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1441        if self.RETURNING_END:
1442            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1443        else:
1444            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1445        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1446
1447    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1449        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1450        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1451        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1452        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1453        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1454        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1455        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1456        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1457        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1458        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1459        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1460        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1461        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1462        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1463
1464    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1465        op_type = type(expression)
1466        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1467
1468        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1469        if (
1470            distinct is False
1471            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1472            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1473        ):
1474            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1475
1476        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1477
1478        if distinct is None:
1479            distinct = default_distinct
1480            if distinct is None:
1481                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1482
1483        if distinct is default_distinct:
1484            distinct_or_all = ""
1485        else:
1486            distinct_or_all = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1487
1488        side_kind = " ".join(filter(None, [expression.side, expression.kind]))
1489        side_kind = f"{side_kind} " if side_kind else ""
1490
1491        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1492        on = self.expressions(expression, key="on", flat=True)
1493        on = f" ON ({on})" if on else ""
1494
1495        return f"{side_kind}{op_name}{distinct_or_all}{by_name}{on}"
1496
1497    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1498        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1499            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1500            order = expression.args.get("order")
1501
1502            if limit or order:
1503                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1504                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1505                )
1506
1507                if limit:
1508                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1509                if order:
1510                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1511                return self.sql(select)
1512
1513        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1514        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1515
1516        while stack:
1517            node = stack.pop()
1518
1519            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1520                stack.append(node.expression)
1521                stack.append(
1522                    self.maybe_comment(
1523                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1524                    )
1525                )
1526                stack.append(node.this)
1527            else:
1528                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1529
1530        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1531        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1532        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1533
1534    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1535        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1536        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1537        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1538        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1539        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
1540        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
1541        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"
1542
1543    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
1544        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1545        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
1546        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
1547        if not with_ties and rows:
1548            with_ties = " ONLY"
1549        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"
1550
1551    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1552        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1553            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1554            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1555            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1556
1557        agg = expression.this
1558        agg_arg = agg.this
1559        cond = expression.expression.this
1560        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1561        return self.sql(agg)
1562
1563    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1564        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1565            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1566            return ""
1567
1568        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1569
1570    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1571        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1572        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1573        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1574        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1575        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1576        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1577        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1578        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1579        if include:
1580            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1581        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1582        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1583        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1584        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1585        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1586        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1587
1588        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1589
1590    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1591        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1592        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1593        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1594        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1595        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1596        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1597        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1598
1599        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1600
1601        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1602        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1603
1604    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1605        text = expression.name
1606        lower = text.lower()
1607        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1608        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1609        if (
1610            expression.quoted
1611            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1612            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1613            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1614        ):
1615            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1616        return text
1617
1618    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1619        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1620        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1621            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1622
1623        return text
1624
1625    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1626        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1627        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1628            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1629        return text
1630
1631    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1632        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1633        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1634        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1635        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1636        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1637
1638    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1639        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1640        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1641
1642    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1643        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
1644        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1645
1646    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1647        root_properties = []
1648        with_properties = []
1649
1650        for p in expression.expressions:
1651            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1652            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1653                with_properties.append(p)
1654            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1655                root_properties.append(p)
1656
1657        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1658        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1659
1660        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1661            with_props = " " + with_props
1662
1663        return root_props + with_props
1664
1665    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1666        if properties.expressions:
1667            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1668        return ""
1669
1670    def properties(
1671        self,
1672        properties: exp.Properties,
1673        prefix: str = "",
1674        sep: str = ", ",
1675        suffix: str = "",
1676        wrapped: bool = True,
1677    ) -> str:
1678        if properties.expressions:
1679            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1680            if expressions:
1681                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1682                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1683        return ""
1684
1685    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1686        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1687
1688    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1689        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1690        for p in properties.expressions:
1691            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1692            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1693                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1694            else:
1695                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1696
1697        return properties_locs
1698
1699    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1700        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1701            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1702        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1703
1704    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1705        property_cls = expression.__class__
1706        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1707            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1708
1709        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1710        if not property_name:
1711            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1712
1713        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1714
1715    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1716        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1717            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1718            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1719
1720            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1721            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1722                like = f"({like})"
1723
1724            return like
1725
1726        if expression.expressions:
1727            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1728
1729        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1730        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1731
1732    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1733        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1734        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1735        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1736
1737    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1738        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1739        local = expression.args.get("local")
1740        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1741        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1742        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1743        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1744        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1745
1746    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1747        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1748        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1749        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1750
1751    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1752        if expression.args.get("default"):
1753            property = "DEFAULT"
1754        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1755            property = "ON"
1756        else:
1757            property = "OFF"
1758        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1759
1760    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1761        if expression.args.get("no"):
1762            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1763        if expression.args.get("default"):
1764            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1765
1766        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1767        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1768
1769    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1770        default = expression.args.get("default")
1771        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1772        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1773        if default or minimum or maximum:
1774            if default:
1775                prop = "DEFAULT"
1776            elif minimum:
1777                prop = "MINIMUM"
1778            else:
1779                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1780            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1781        units = expression.args.get("units")
1782        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1783        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1784
1785    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1786        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1787        always = expression.args.get("always")
1788        default = expression.args.get("default")
1789        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1790        never = expression.args.get("never")
1791
1792        if autotemp is not None:
1793            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1794        elif always:
1795            prop = "ALWAYS"
1796        elif default:
1797            prop = "DEFAULT"
1798        elif manual:
1799            prop = "MANUAL"
1800        elif never:
1801            prop = "NEVER"
1802        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1803
1804    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1805        no = expression.args.get("no")
1806        no = " NO" if no else ""
1807        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1808        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1809        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1810        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1811        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1812
1813    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1814        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1815            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1816        if expression.this:
1817            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1818            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1819            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1820
1821        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1822        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1823        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1824
1825    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1827
1828        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1829        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1830            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1831        else:
1832            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1833
1834        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1835
1836    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1837        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1838        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1839        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1840        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1841        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1842        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1843        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1844
1845    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1846        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1847        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1848        statistics_sql = ""
1849        if statistics is not None:
1850            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1851        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1852
1853    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1854        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1855        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1856        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1857        data_consistency = (
1858            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1859        )
1860        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1861        retention_period = (
1862            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1863        )
1864
1865        if this:
1866            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1867        else:
1868            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1869
1870        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1871
1872        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1873
1874    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1875        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1876        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1877
1878        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1879            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1880        else:
1881            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1882
1883        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1884        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1885        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1886        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1887        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1888        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1889        if is_function:
1890            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1891        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1892
1893        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1894        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1895        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1896        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1897        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1898        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1899        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1900        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1901
1902        if self.RETURNING_END:
1903            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1904        else:
1905            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1906
1907        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1908        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1909        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1910        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1911
1912        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1913        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1914
1915        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1916        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1917
1918    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1919        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1920
1921    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1922        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1923        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1925        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1926        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1927
1928    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1929        return expression.name
1930
1931    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1932        return expression.name
1933
1934    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1935        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1936
1937        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1938        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1939
1940        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1941        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1942        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1943
1944        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1945        if expressions:
1946            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1947            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1948
1949        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1950        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1951
1952    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1953        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1954
1955    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1956        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1957        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1958        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1959        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1960        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1961        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1962        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1963        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1964        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1965        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1966        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1967        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1968        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1969
1970    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1971        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1972
1973    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1974        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1975        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1976        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1977        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1978
1979    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1981        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1982        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1983        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1984
1985    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1986        return ".".join(
1987            self.sql(part)
1988            for part in (
1989                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1990                expression.args.get("db"),
1991                expression.args.get("this"),
1992            )
1993            if part is not None
1994        )
1995
1996    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1997        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1998        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1999        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2000        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2001        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
2002        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
2003        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2004        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2005
2006        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2007        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
2008            sample_pre_alias = sample
2009            sample_post_alias = ""
2010        else:
2011            sample_pre_alias = ""
2012            sample_post_alias = sample
2013
2014        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
2015        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
2016        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2017        joins = self.indent(
2018            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
2019        )
2020        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
2021
2022        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
2023        if file_format:
2024            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2025            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
2026            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
2027
2028        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
2029        if ordinality:
2030            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
2031            alias = ""
2032
2033        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
2034        if when:
2035            table = f"{table} {when}"
2036
2037        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
2038        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
2039
2040        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
2041        if rows_from:
2042            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
2043
2044        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
2045
2046    def tablefromrows_sql(self, expression: exp.TableFromRows) -> str:
2047        table = self.func("TABLE", expression.this)
2048        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2049        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2050        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2051        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2052        joins = self.indent(
2053            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
2054        )
2055        return f"{table}{alias}{pivots}{sample}{joins}"
2056
2057    def tablesample_sql(
2058        self,
2059        expression: exp.TableSample,
2060        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
2061    ) -> str:
2062        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
2063        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
2064        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
2065        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
2066        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
2067        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
2068        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
2069        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
2070        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
2071
2072        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
2073        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
2074            size = f"{size} ROWS"
2075
2076        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
2077        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
2078            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
2079
2080        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
2081        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
2082            expr = f"({expr})"
2083
2084        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
2085
2086    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
2087        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2088        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
2089
2090        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2091
2092        if expression.this:
2093            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2094            if not expressions:
2095                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
2096
2097            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2098            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2099            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2100            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2101            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2102            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2103
2104        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2105        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2106
2107        fields = self.expressions(
2108            expression,
2109            "fields",
2110            sep=" ",
2111            dynamic=True,
2112            new_line=True,
2113            skip_first=True,
2114            skip_last=True,
2115        )
2116
2117        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2118        if include_nulls is not None:
2119            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2120        else:
2121            nulls = ""
2122
2123        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2124        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2125        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {fields}{default_on_null}{group}){alias}"
2126
2127    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2128        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2129        kind = expression.text("kind")
2130        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2131        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2132
2133    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2134        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2135
2136    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2137        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2138        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2139        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2140        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2141        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2142        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2143        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2144        if self.RETURNING_END:
2145            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2146        else:
2147            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2148        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2149        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2150
2151    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2152        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2153
2154        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2155        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2156            args = self.expressions(expression)
2157            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2158            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2159            values = (
2160                f"({values})"
2161                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2162                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2163                else values
2164            )
2165            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2166
2167        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2168        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2169        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2170
2171        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2172
2173        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2174            row = tup.expressions
2175
2176            if i == 0 and column_names:
2177                row = [
2178                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2179                ]
2180
2181            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2182
2183        if self.pretty:
2184            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2185            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2186            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2187            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2188            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2189
2190        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2191        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2192        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2193
2194    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2195        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2196
2197    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2198    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2199        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2200        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2201        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2202
2203    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2204        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2205
2206    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2207        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2208        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2209
2210    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2211        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2212        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2213
2214    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2216        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2217
2218    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2219        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2220        if group_by_all is True:
2221            modifier = " ALL"
2222        elif group_by_all is False:
2223            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2224        else:
2225            modifier = ""
2226
2227        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2228
2229        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2230        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2231        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2232
2233        groupings = csv(
2234            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2235            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2236            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2237            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2238            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2239        )
2240
2241        if (
2242            expression.expressions
2243            and groupings
2244            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2245        ):
2246            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2247
2248        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2249
2250    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2251        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2252        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2253
2254    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2255        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2256        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2257        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2258        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2259        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2260        return start + connect
2261
2262    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2263        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2264
2265    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2266        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2267            side = None
2268        else:
2269            side = expression.side
2270
2271        op_sql = " ".join(
2272            op
2273            for op in (
2274                expression.method,
2275                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2276                side,
2277                expression.kind,
2278                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2279            )
2280            if op
2281        )
2282        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2283        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2284        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2285        using = expression.args.get("using")
2286
2287        if not on_sql and using:
2288            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2289
2290        this = expression.this
2291        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2292
2293        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2294        if exprs:
2295            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2296
2297        if on_sql:
2298            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2299            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2300            if using:
2301                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2302            else:
2303                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2304        elif not op_sql:
2305            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2306                return f" {this_sql}"
2307
2308            return f", {this_sql}"
2309
2310        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2311            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2312
2313        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2314        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}{pivots}"
2315
2316    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2317        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2318        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2319        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2320
2321    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2322        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2323
2324        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2325        if cross_apply is True:
2326            op = "INNER JOIN "
2327        elif cross_apply is False:
2328            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2329        else:
2330            op = ""
2331
2332        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2333
2334    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2335        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2336
2337        if expression.args.get("view"):
2338            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2339            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2340            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2341            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2342            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2343            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2344
2345        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2346        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2347
2348        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
2349        if ordinality:
2350            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
2351            alias = ""
2352
2353        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}{ordinality}"
2354
2355    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2356        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2357
2358        args = [
2359            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2360            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2361            if e
2362        ]
2363
2364        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2365        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2366        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2367        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
2368        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2369
2370        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"
2371
2372    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2373        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2374        value = expression.expression
2375        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2376        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2377        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2378        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2379
2380    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2381        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2382        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2384        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2385        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2386        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2387        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2388        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2389
2390    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2391        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2392        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2393        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2394
2395    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2396        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2397
2398    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2399        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2400            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2401            return ""
2402
2403        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2404        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2405        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2406        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2407
2408        if wait is not None:
2409            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2410                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2411            else:
2412                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2413
2414        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2415
2416    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2417        text = expression.this or ""
2418        if expression.is_string:
2419            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2420        return text
2421
2422    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2423        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2424            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2425            text = "".join(
2426                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2427            )
2428
2429        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2430            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2431        )
2432
2433    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2434        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2435        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2436        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2437        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2438        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2439        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2440        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2441        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2442        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2443        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2444        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2445
2446    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2447        return "NULL"
2448
2449    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2450        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2451
2452    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2453        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2454        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2455        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2456        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2457
2458    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2459        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2460        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2461        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2462        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2463        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2464        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2465        interpolated_values = [
2466            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2467            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2468            else self.sql(e, "this")
2469            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2470        ]
2471        interpolate = (
2472            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2473        )
2474        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2475
2476    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2477        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2478
2479    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2480        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2481
2482    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2483        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2484
2485    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2486        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2487        asc = not desc
2488
2489        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2490        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2491        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2492        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2493        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2494
2495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2496
2497        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2498        nulls_sort_change = ""
2499        if nulls_first and (
2500            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2501        ):
2502            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2503        elif (
2504            nulls_last
2505            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2506            and not nulls_are_last
2507        ):
2508            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2509
2510        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2511        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2512            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2513            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2514                self.unsupported(
2515                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2516                )
2517                nulls_sort_change = ""
2518            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2519                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2520                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2521            ):
2522                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2523                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2524                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2525
2526                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2527                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2528                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2529                    self.unsupported(
2530                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2531                    )
2532                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2533            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2534                if expression.this.is_int:
2535                    self.unsupported(
2536                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2537                    )
2538                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2539                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2540                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2541                nulls_sort_change = ""
2542
2543        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2544        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2545
2546        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2547
2548    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2549        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2550        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2551
2552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2553
2554        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2555
2556    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2557        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2558        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2559        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2560        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2561        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2562        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2563        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2564        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2565        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2566        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2567        definition_sqls = [
2568            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2569            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2570        ]
2571        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2572        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2573        body = "".join(
2574            (
2575                partition,
2576                order,
2577                measures,
2578                rows,
2579                after,
2580                pattern,
2581                define,
2582            )
2583        )
2584        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2585        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2586        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2587
2588    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2589        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2590
2591        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2592            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2593        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2594            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2595
2596        return csv(
2597            *sqls,
2598            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2599            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2600            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2601            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2602            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2603            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2604            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2605            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2606            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2607            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2608            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2609            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2610            self.options_modifier(expression),
2611            self.for_modifiers(expression),
2612            sep="",
2613        )
2614
2615    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2616        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2617        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2618
2619    def for_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2620        for_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="for")
2621        return f"{self.sep()}FOR XML{self.seg(for_modifiers)}" if for_modifiers else ""
2622
2623    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2624        self.unsupported("Unsupported query option.")
2625        return ""
2626
2627    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2628        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2629    ) -> t.List[str]:
2630        return [
2631            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2632            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2633        ]
2634
2635    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2636        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2637        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2638        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2639
2640    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2641        into = expression.args.get("into")
2642        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2643            into.pop()
2644
2645        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2646        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2647        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2648        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2649
2650        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2651        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2652            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2653            limit.pop()
2654        else:
2655            top = ""
2656
2657        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2658
2659        if kind:
2660            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2661                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2662            else:
2663                if kind == "STRUCT":
2664                    expressions = self.expressions(
2665                        sqls=[
2666                            self.sql(
2667                                exp.Struct(
2668                                    expressions=[
2669                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2670                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2671                                        else e
2672                                        for e in expression.expressions
2673                                    ]
2674                                )
2675                            )
2676                        ]
2677                    )
2678                kind = ""
2679
2680        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2681        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2682
2683        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2684        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2685        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2686        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2687        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2688            expression,
2689            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2690            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2691            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2692        )
2693
2694        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2695        if expression.args.get("with"):
2696            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2697            expression.pop_comments()
2698
2699        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2700
2701        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2702            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2703                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2704            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2705                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2706            else:
2707                table_kind = ""
2708            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2709
2710        return sql
2711
2712    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2713        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2714        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2715        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2716
2717    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2718        if expression.expressions:
2719            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2720        return ""
2721
2722    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2723        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2724        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2725        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2726        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2727        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2728        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2729        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2730
2731    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2733        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2734
2735    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2737        kind = expression.text("kind")
2738        if kind:
2739            kind = f"{kind}."
2740        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2741
2742    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2743        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2744
2745    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2746        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2747        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2748        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2749        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2750            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2751
2752            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2753            expression.set("sample", None)
2754
2755        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2756        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2757        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2758
2759    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2760        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2761        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2762
2763    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2764        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2765
2766        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2767        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2768
2769        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2770            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2771                alias.append("columns", offset)
2772
2773        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2774            columns = alias.columns
2775            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2776        else:
2777            alias = self.sql(alias)
2778
2779        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2780        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2781            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2782        else:
2783            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2784                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2785            elif offset:
2786                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2787            else:
2788                suffix = alias
2789
2790        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2791
2792    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2793        return ""
2794
2795    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2796        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2797        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2798
2799    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2801        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2802        order = expression.args.get("order")
2803        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2804        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2805        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2806        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2807
2808        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2809
2810        first = expression.args.get("first")
2811        if first is None:
2812            first = ""
2813        else:
2814            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2815
2816        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2817            return f"{this} {alias}"
2818
2819        args = self.format_args(
2820            *[arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg], sep=" "
2821        )
2822        return f"{this} ({args})"
2823
2824    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2825        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2826        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2827
2828    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2829        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2830        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2831        end = (
2832            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2833            or "CURRENT ROW"
2834        )
2835
2836        window_spec = f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2837
2838        exclude = self.sql(expression, "exclude")
2839        if exclude:
2840            if self.SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE:
2841                window_spec += f" EXCLUDE {exclude}"
2842            else:
2843                self.unsupported("EXCLUDE clause is not supported in the WINDOW clause")
2844
2845        return window_spec
2846
2847    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2849        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2850        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2851
2852    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2854        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2855        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2856        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2857
2858    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2859        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2860    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2861        return apply_index_offset(
2862            expression.this,
2863            expression.expressions,
2864            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2865            dialect=self.dialect,
2866        )
2867
2868    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2869        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2870        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2871        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2872
2873    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2874        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2875
2876    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2878        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2879            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2880                this = self.wrap(this)
2881            return f"ANY{this}"
2882        return f"ANY {this}"
2883
2884    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2885        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2886
2887    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2889        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2890
2891        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2892            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2893            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2894
2895        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2896
2897        if default:
2898            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2899
2900        statements.append("END")
2901
2902        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2903            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2904
2905        return " ".join(statements)
2906
2907    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2909        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2910        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2911
2912    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2913        order = expression.args.get("order")
2914        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2915        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2916
2917    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2918        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import map_date_part
2919
2920        this = (
2921            map_date_part(expression.this, self.dialect)
2922            if self.NORMALIZE_EXTRACT_DATE_PARTS
2923            else expression.this
2924        )
2925        this_sql = self.sql(this) if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else this.name
2926        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2927
2928        return f"EXTRACT({this_sql} FROM {expression_sql})"
2929
2930    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2931        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2932
2933        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2934            func_name = "LTRIM"
2935        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2936            func_name = "RTRIM"
2937        else:
2938            func_name = "TRIM"
2939
2940        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2941
2942    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2943        args = expression.expressions
2944        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2945            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2946
2947        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2948            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2949
2950        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2951            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2952
2953        return args
2954
2955    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2956        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2957
2958        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2959        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2960            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2961
2962        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2963
2964    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2965        return self.func(
2966            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2967        )
2968
2969    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2970        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2971        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2972
2973    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2974        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2975        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2976        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2977        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2978        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2979        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2980        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2981        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2982        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2983        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2984        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}{options}"
2985
2986    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2987        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2988        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2989        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2990        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2991
2992    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2993        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2994
2995    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2996        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2997        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2998        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2999
3000    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
3001        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3002
3003    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
3004        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
3005
3006        if expression.args.get("escape"):
3007            path = self.escape_str(path)
3008
3009        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
3010            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
3011
3012        return path
3013
3014    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
3015        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
3016            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
3017            if not callable(transform):
3018                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3019                return ""
3020
3021            return transform(self, expression)
3022
3023        if isinstance(expression, int):
3024            return str(expression)
3025
3026        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
3027            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
3028            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
3029        else:
3030            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
3031            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
3032
3033        return escaped
3034
3035    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
3036        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
3037
3038    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
3039        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3040        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3041
3042        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
3043        if unique_keys is not None:
3044            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
3045        else:
3046            unique_keys = ""
3047
3048        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3049        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3050        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
3051        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
3052
3053        return self.func(
3054            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
3055            *expression.expressions,
3056            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
3057        )
3058
3059    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
3060        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
3061
3062    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
3063        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3064        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3065        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3066        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3067        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3068        return self.func(
3069            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
3070        )
3071
3072    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
3073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3074        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3075        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3076        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3077        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3078        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3079        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3080        return self.func(
3081            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
3082            this,
3083            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
3084        )
3085
3086    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
3087        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3088        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
3089        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
3090
3091        if nested_schema:
3092            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
3093
3094        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3095        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3096        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3097        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
3098
3099    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
3100        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
3101
3102    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
3103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3104        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3105        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3106        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
3107        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
3108        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
3109        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
3110        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3111        return self.func(
3112            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
3113        )
3114
3115    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
3116        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3117        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3118        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3119        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
3120        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
3121        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
3122
3123    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
3124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3125        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3126        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3127        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3128        with_ = (
3129            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3130            if expressions
3131            else ""
3132        )
3133        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
3134
3135    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
3136        query = expression.args.get("query")
3137        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
3138        field = expression.args.get("field")
3139        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3140
3141        if query:
3142            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3143        elif unnest:
3144            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3145        elif field:
3146            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3147        else:
3148            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
3149
3150        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3151
3152    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3153        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3154
3155    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3156        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3157        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3158            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3159        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3160
3161        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3162            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3163            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3164
3165        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3166        if this:
3167            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3168            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3169
3170        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3171
3172    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3173        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3174
3175    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3177        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3178        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3179        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3180        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3181        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3182
3183    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3184        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3185        parent = expression.parent
3186        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3187        return self.func(
3188            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3189        )
3190
3191    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3192        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3193        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3194
3195    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3196        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3197        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3198        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3199        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3200
3201    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3202        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3203
3204    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3205        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3206        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3207        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3208
3209    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3210        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3211
3212        parent = expression.parent
3213        pivot = parent and parent.parent
3214
3215        if isinstance(pivot, exp.Pivot) and pivot.unpivot:
3216            identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3217            literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3218
3219            if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3220                alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3221            elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3222                alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3223
3224        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3225
3226    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3227        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3228
3229    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3230        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3231        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3232        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3233
3234    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3236        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3237        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3238
3239    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3241        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3242        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3243
3244    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3245        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3246
3247    def and_sql(
3248        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3249    ) -> str:
3250        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3251
3252    def or_sql(
3253        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3254    ) -> str:
3255        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3256
3257    def xor_sql(
3258        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3259    ) -> str:
3260        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3261
3262    def connector_sql(
3263        self,
3264        expression: exp.Connector,
3265        op: str,
3266        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3267    ) -> str:
3268        if stack is not None:
3269            if expression.expressions:
3270                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3271            else:
3272                stack.append(expression.right)
3273                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3274                    for comment in expression.comments:
3275                        if comment:
3276                            op += f" /*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/"
3277                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3278            return op
3279
3280        stack = [expression]
3281        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3282        ops = set()
3283
3284        while stack:
3285            node = stack.pop()
3286            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3287                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3288            else:
3289                sql = self.sql(node)
3290                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3291                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3292                else:
3293                    sqls.append(sql)
3294
3295        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3296        return sep.join(sqls)
3297
3298    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3299        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3300
3301    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3302        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3303
3304    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3305        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3306
3307    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3308        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3309
3310    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3311        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3312
3313    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3314        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3315
3316    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3317        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3318        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3319        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3320        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3321        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3322        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3323        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3324        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
3325        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"
3326
3327    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3328        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3329        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3330
3331    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3332        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3333            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3334        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3335
3336    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3337        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3338
3339    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3341        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3342        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3343        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3344        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3345        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3346
3347    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3348        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3349        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3350        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3351        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3352        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3353        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3354        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3355        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3356        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3357
3358    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3359        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3360        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3361        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3362        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3363
3364        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3365            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3366
3367        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3368
3369    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3370        return "BEGIN"
3371
3372    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3373        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3374        if chain is not None:
3375            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3376
3377        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3378
3379    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3380        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3381        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3382        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3383
3384    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3386
3387        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3388        if dtype:
3389            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3390            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3391            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3392            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3393            alter_set_type = self.ALTER_SET_TYPE + " " if self.ALTER_SET_TYPE else ""
3394            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {alter_set_type}{dtype}{collate}{using}"
3395
3396        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3397        if default:
3398            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3399
3400        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3401        if comment:
3402            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3403
3404        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3405        if visible:
3406            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET {visible}"
3407
3408        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3409        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3410
3411        if not drop and not allow_null:
3412            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3413
3414        if allow_null is not None:
3415            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3416            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3417
3418        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3419
3420    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
3421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3422
3423        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3424        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3425
3426        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"
3427
3428    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3430        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3431            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3432        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3433
3434    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3435        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3436        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3437        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3438        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3439        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3440
3441    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3442        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3443            # Remove db from tables
3444            expression = expression.transform(
3445                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3446            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3448        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3449
3450    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3451        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3452        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3453        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3454        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3455
3456    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3457        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3458        if self.ALTER_SET_WRAPPED:
3459            exprs = f"({exprs})"
3460
3461        return f"SET {exprs}"
3462
3463    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3464        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3465
3466        if not self.dialect.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_REQUIRED_FOR_EACH_COLUMN and isinstance(
3467            actions[0], exp.ColumnDef
3468        ):
3469            actions_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3470            actions_sql = f"ADD {actions_sql}"
3471        else:
3472            actions_list = []
3473            for action in actions:
3474                if isinstance(action, (exp.ColumnDef, exp.Schema)):
3475                    action_sql = self.add_column_sql(action)
3476                else:
3477                    action_sql = self.sql(action)
3478                    if isinstance(action, exp.Query):
3479                        action_sql = f"AS {action_sql}"
3480
3481                actions_list.append(action_sql)
3482
3483            actions_sql = self.format_args(*actions_list)
3484
3485        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3486        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3487        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3488        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3489        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3490        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3491        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3492        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3493
3494        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions_sql}{not_valid}{options}"
3495
3496    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
3497        sql = self.sql(expression)
3498        if isinstance(expression, exp.Schema):
3499            column_text = " COLUMNS"
3500        elif isinstance(expression, exp.ColumnDef) and self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3501            column_text = " COLUMN"
3502        else:
3503            column_text = ""
3504
3505        return f"ADD{column_text} {sql}"
3506
3507    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3508        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3509        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3510        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3511
3512    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3513        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3514
3515    def addpartition_sql(self, expression: exp.AddPartition) -> str:
3516        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3517        return f"ADD {exists}{self.sql(expression.this)}"
3518
3519    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3520        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3521
3522        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3523            case = exp.case()
3524            for arg in expression.expressions:
3525                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3526            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3527
3528        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3529
3530        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3531        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3532        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3533
3534    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3535        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3536
3537    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3538        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3539
3540    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3541        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3542        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3543        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3544        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3545
3546    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3547        return self.sql(
3548            exp.Cast(
3549                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3550                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3551            )
3552        )
3553
3554    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3555        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3556            return self.func(
3557                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3558            )
3559        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3560
3561    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3562        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3563
3564        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3565            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3566
3567        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3568            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3569                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3570
3571        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3572            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3573                return self.sql(
3574                    exp.cast(
3575                        l / r,
3576                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3577                    )
3578                )
3579
3580        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3581
3582    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
3583        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
3584        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
3585        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))
3586
3587    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3588        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3589
3590    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3591        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3592
3593    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3594        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3595
3596    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3597        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3598
3599    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3600        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3601
3602    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3603        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3604
3605    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3606        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3607
3608    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3609        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3610
3611    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3612        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3613
3614    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3615        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3616
3617    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3618        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3619
3620    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3621        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3622            return self.sql(
3623                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3624            )
3625        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3626
3627    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3628        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3629
3630    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3631        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3632
3633    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3634        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3635
3636    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3637        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3638
3639    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3640        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3641
3642    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3643        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3644
3645    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3646        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3647
3648    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3649        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3650
3651    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3652        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3653
3654    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3655        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3656
3657    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3658        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3659
3660    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3661        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3662
3663    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3664        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3665
3666    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
3667        return self.cast_sql(expression)
3668
3669    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3670        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3671            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3672            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3673
3674        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3675
3676    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3677        this = expression.this
3678        expr = expression.expression
3679
3680        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3681            this, expr = expr, this
3682        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3683            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3684                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3685
3686            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3687
3688        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3689
3690    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3691        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3692        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3693        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3694        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3695        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3696
3697    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3698        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3699        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3700        binary_type = type(expression)
3701
3702        while stack:
3703            node = stack.pop()
3704
3705            if type(node) is binary_type:
3706                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3707                if op_func:
3708                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3709
3710                stack.append(node.right)
3711                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3712                stack.append(node.left)
3713            else:
3714                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3715
3716        return "".join(sqls)
3717
3718    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
3719        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
3720        if to_clause:
3721            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
3722
3723        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3724
3725    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3726        args = []
3727
3728        for key in expression.arg_types:
3729            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3730
3731            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3732                for value in arg_value:
3733                    args.append(value)
3734            elif arg_value is not None:
3735                args.append(arg_value)
3736
3737        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3738            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3739        else:
3740            name = expression.sql_name()
3741
3742        return self.func(name, *args)
3743
3744    def func(
3745        self,
3746        name: str,
3747        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3748        prefix: str = "(",
3749        suffix: str = ")",
3750        normalize: bool = True,
3751    ) -> str:
3752        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3753        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3754
3755    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3756        arg_sqls = tuple(
3757            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3758        )
3759        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3760            return self.indent(
3761                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3762            )
3763        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3764
3765    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3766        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3767
3768    def format_time(
3769        self,
3770        expression: exp.Expression,
3771        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3772        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3773    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3774        return format_time(
3775            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3776            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3777            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3778        )
3779
3780    def expressions(
3781        self,
3782        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3783        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3784        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3785        flat: bool = False,
3786        indent: bool = True,
3787        skip_first: bool = False,
3788        skip_last: bool = False,
3789        sep: str = ", ",
3790        prefix: str = "",
3791        dynamic: bool = False,
3792        new_line: bool = False,
3793    ) -> str:
3794        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3795
3796        if not expressions:
3797            return ""
3798
3799        if flat:
3800            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3801
3802        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3803        result_sqls = []
3804
3805        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3806            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3807            if not sql:
3808                continue
3809
3810            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3811
3812            if self.pretty:
3813                if self.leading_comma:
3814                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3815                else:
3816                    result_sqls.append(
3817                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3818                    )
3819            else:
3820                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3821
3822        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3823            if new_line:
3824                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3825                result_sqls.append("")
3826            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3827        else:
3828            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3829
3830        return (
3831            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3832            if indent
3833            else result_sql
3834        )
3835
3836    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3837        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3838        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3839        if flat:
3840            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3841        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3842
3843    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3844        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3845        if not property_name:
3846            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3847        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3848
3849    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3850        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3851
3852    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3853        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3854
3855    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3857        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3858        expressions = (
3859            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3860        )
3861        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3862
3863    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3865        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3866        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3867
3868    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3869        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3870
3871    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3872        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3873        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3874        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3875        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3876
3877        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3878        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3879            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3880            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3881            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3882            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3883        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3884            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3885                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3886            else:
3887                then = f"UPDATE SET{self.sep()}{self.expressions(then_expression)}"
3888        else:
3889            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3890        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3891
3892    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3893        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3894
3895    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3896        table = expression.this
3897        table_alias = ""
3898
3899        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3900        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3901            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3902            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3903
3904        this = self.sql(table)
3905        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3906        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3907        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3908
3909        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3910        if returning:
3911            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3912
3913        sep = self.sep()
3914
3915        return self.prepend_ctes(
3916            expression,
3917            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3918        )
3919
3920    @unsupported_args("format")
3921    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3922        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3923
3924    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3925        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3926            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3927            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3928
3929        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3930        if not fmt:
3931            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3932            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3933
3934        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3935
3936    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3938        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3939        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3940        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3941        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3942
3943    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3945        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3946        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3947        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3948
3949    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3950        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3951
3952    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3953        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3954
3955    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3956    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3957        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3958
3959    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3960    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3961        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3962        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3963        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3964        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3965        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3966        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3967        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3968
3969    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3970        return ""
3971
3972    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3973        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3974        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3975        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3976        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3977        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3978
3979    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3981        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3982
3983        if having:
3984            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3985
3986        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3987
3988    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3989        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3990        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3991        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3992        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3993        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3994        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3995        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3996        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3997        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3998        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3999        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
4000        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
4001        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
4002
4003    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
4004        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
4005        if key_block_size:
4006            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
4007
4008        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
4009        if using:
4010            return f"USING {using}"
4011
4012        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
4013        if parser:
4014            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
4015
4016        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
4017        if comment:
4018            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
4019
4020        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
4021        if visible is not None:
4022            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
4023
4024        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
4025        if engine_attr:
4026            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
4027
4028        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
4029        if secondary_engine_attr:
4030            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
4031
4032        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
4033        return ""
4034
4035    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
4036        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
4037        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
4038
4039    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
4040        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4041        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
4042        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4043        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4044        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
4045        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
4046        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4047        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4048        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4049        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4050        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
4051
4052    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
4053        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
4054            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4055
4056        case = exp.Case().when(
4057            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
4058            expression.args["true"],
4059            copy=False,
4060        )
4061        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
4062        if else_cond:
4063            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
4064
4065        return self.sql(case)
4066
4067    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
4068        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4069        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4070        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
4071        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
4072        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
4073        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
4074
4075    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
4076        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
4077
4078    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
4079        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4080
4081    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
4082        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
4083        model = f"MODEL {model}"
4084        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4085        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
4086        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
4087        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
4088
4089    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
4090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4091        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4092        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
4093
4094    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
4095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4096        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
4097        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
4098
4099    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
4100        arg = expression.this
4101        if not arg.type:
4102            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
4103
4104            arg = annotate_types(arg, dialect=self.dialect)
4105
4106        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
4107            return self.sql(arg)
4108
4109        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
4110        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
4111
4112    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
4113        this = expression.this
4114        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4115
4116        if time_format:
4117            return self.sql(
4118                exp.cast(
4119                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4120                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
4121                )
4122            )
4123
4124        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
4125            return self.sql(this)
4126
4127        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
4128
4129    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
4130        this = expression.this
4131        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
4132            return self.sql(this)
4133
4134        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
4135
4136    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
4137        this = expression.this
4138        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
4139            return self.sql(this)
4140
4141        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
4142
4143    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
4144        this = expression.this
4145        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4146
4147        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
4148            return self.sql(
4149                exp.cast(
4150                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4151                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
4152                )
4153            )
4154
4155        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
4156            return self.sql(this)
4157
4158        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
4159
4160    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
4161        return self.sql(
4162            exp.func(
4163                "DATEDIFF",
4164                expression.this,
4165                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
4166                "day",
4167            )
4168        )
4169
4170    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
4171        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
4172            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4173
4174        unit = expression.text("unit")
4175        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
4176            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
4177
4178        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
4179
4180    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
4181        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
4182
4183        return self.func(
4184            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
4185        )
4186
4187    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
4188        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
4189            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
4190            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
4191            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
4192            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
4193
4194        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
4195
4196        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
4197        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
4198            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4199
4200        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4201
4202    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4203        expression.set(
4204            "expressions",
4205            [
4206                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4207                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4208                else e
4209                for e in expression.expressions
4210            ],
4211        )
4212
4213        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4214
4215    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4216        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4217        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4218
4219        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4220
4221    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4222        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4223        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4224
4225        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4226
4227        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4228        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4229
4230        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4231        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4232
4233        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4234        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4235
4236        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4237        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4238
4239        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4240
4241    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4242    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4243    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4244        to = expression.this
4245        value = expression.expression
4246        style = expression.args.get("style")
4247        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4248        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4249
4250        if not to or not value:
4251            return ""
4252
4253        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4254        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4255            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4256
4257        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4258        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4259
4260        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4261        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4262            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4263
4264            style_value = style.name
4265            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4266            if not converted_style:
4267                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4268
4269            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4270
4271            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4272                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4273            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4274                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4275            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4276                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4277            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4278                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4279
4280        if not transformed:
4281            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4282
4283        return self.sql(transformed)
4284
4285    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4286        this = expression.this
4287        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4288            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4289            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4290
4291        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4292            return f".{this}"
4293
4294        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4295        return (
4296            f"[{this}]"
4297            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4298            else f".{this}"
4299        )
4300
4301    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4302        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4303        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4304
4305    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4306        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4307            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4308
4309            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4310
4311        return expression
4312
4313    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4314        this = expression.this
4315        if isinstance(this, self.RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS):
4316            self.unsupported(
4317                f"RESPECT/IGNORE NULLS is not supported for {type(this).key} in {self.dialect.__class__.__name__}"
4318            )
4319            return self.sql(this)
4320
4321        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4322            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4323            mods = sorted(
4324                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4325                key=lambda x: 0
4326                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4327                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4328            )
4329
4330            if mods:
4331                mod = mods[0]
4332                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4333                this.meta["inline"] = True
4334                mod.this.replace(this)
4335                return self.sql(expression.this)
4336
4337            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4338
4339            if agg_func:
4340                agg_func_sql = self.sql(agg_func, comment=False)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4341                return self.maybe_comment(agg_func_sql, comments=agg_func.comments)
4342
4343        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4344
4345    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4346        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4347        if self.pretty:
4348            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4349        return string
4350
4351    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4352        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4353
4354        if expression.expressions:
4355            upper = option.upper()
4356
4357            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4358            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4359
4360            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4361            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4362            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4363            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4364
4365        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4366
4367        if not value:
4368            return option
4369
4370        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4371
4372        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4373
4374    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4375        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4376        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4377            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4378            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4379            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4380        else:
4381            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4382            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4383            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4384
4385        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4386        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4387
4388        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4389        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4390
4391        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4392        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4393
4394        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4395        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4396
4397        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4398
4399    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4400        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4401        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4402
4403        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4404        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4405        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4406        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4407
4408        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4409        params = self.expressions(
4410            expression,
4411            key="params",
4412            sep=sep,
4413            new_line=True,
4414            skip_last=True,
4415            skip_first=True,
4416            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4417        )
4418
4419        if params:
4420            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4421                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4422            elif not self.pretty:
4423                params = f" {params}"
4424
4425        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4426
4427    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4428        return ""
4429
4430    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4431        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4432        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4433        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4434        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4435        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4436
4437        if filter_col or retention_period:
4438            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4439
4440        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4441
4442    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4443        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4444    ) -> str:
4445        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4446        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4447        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4448        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4449
4450    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4451        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4452        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4453        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4454
4455    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4456        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4457
4458    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4459        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4460        expr = expression.expression
4461
4462        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4463            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4464            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4465        else:
4466            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4467
4468        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4469
4470    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4471        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4472            return self.sql(expression.this)
4473
4474        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4475
4476    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4477        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4478        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4479
4480        if lower and upper:
4481            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4482        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4483
4484    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4485        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4486        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4487        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4488        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4489        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4490        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4491
4492        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4493
4494    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4495        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4496
4497        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4498        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4499            fill_pattern = "' '"
4500
4501        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4502
4503    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4504        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4505        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4506
4507    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4508        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4509
4510        parent = expression.parent
4511        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4512            parent = parent.parent
4513
4514        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4515            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4516
4517        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4518            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4519
4520        return self.sql(generate_series)
4521
4522    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4523        exprs = expression.expressions
4524        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4525            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4526        else:
4527            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4528
4529        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4530
4531    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4532        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4533            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4534
4535        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4536        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4537        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4538
4539        if source_tz and timestamp:
4540            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4541                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4542            )
4543
4544        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4545
4546        return self.sql(expr)
4547
4548    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4550        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4551
4552        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4553
4554        if _with is None:
4555            with_sql = ""
4556        elif not _with:
4557            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4558        else:
4559            with_sql = " WITH"
4560
4561        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4562
4563        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4564
4565    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4566        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4567            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4568
4569        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4570        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4571        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4572
4573        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4574        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4575
4576        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4577
4578    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4579        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4580        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4581        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4582        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4583        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4584
4585    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4586        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4587        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4588        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4589        return res
4590
4591    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4592        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4593        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4594        empty = (
4595            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4596            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4597            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4598        )
4599
4600        error = expression.args.get("error")
4601        error = (
4602            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4603            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4604            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4605        )
4606
4607        if error and empty:
4608            error = (
4609                f"{empty} {error}"
4610                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4611                else f"{error} {empty}"
4612            )
4613            empty = ""
4614
4615        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4616
4617        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4618
4619    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
4620        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
4621        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"
4622
4623    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4624        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4625        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4626
4627        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4628        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4629
4630        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4631        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4632
4633        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4634
4635        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4636
4637    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4638        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4639
4640        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4641        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4642        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4643            parent = expression.parent
4644            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4645                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4646                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4647            else:
4648                this = expression.this
4649                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4650                if this.find(exp.Column):
4651                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4652                    this_sql = (
4653                        self.expressions(this)
4654                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4655                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4656                    )
4657
4658                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4659
4660        return array_agg
4661
4662    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4663        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4664        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4665
4666        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4667
4668    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4669        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4670
4671        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4672        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4673
4674        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4675        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4676
4677        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4678
4679        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4680
4681        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4682
4683    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4685        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4686        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4687
4688        return f"{this}{columns}"
4689
4690    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4692
4693        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4694        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4695
4696        return f"{kind}{this}"
4697
4698    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4699        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4700        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4701            func = f"*{func}"
4702
4703        return func
4704
4705    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4707        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4708        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4709        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4710        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4711
4712        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4713
4714    @unsupported_args("format")
4715    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4716        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4717
4718    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4719        this = expression.this
4720        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4721
4722        if zone:
4723            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4724            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4725            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4726            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4727                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4728            )
4729
4730        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4731
4732    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4733        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4734            return self.sql(
4735                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4736            )
4737
4738        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4739
4740    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4741        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4742        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4743        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4744        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4745
4746    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4747        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4748            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4749
4750        start_ts = exp.cast(
4751            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4752        )
4753
4754        return self.sql(
4755            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4756        )
4757
4758    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4759        dim = expression.expression
4760
4761        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4762        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4763            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4764                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4765            dim = None
4766
4767        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4768        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4769            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4770
4771        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4772
4773    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4775        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4776        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4777        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4778
4779        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4780
4781    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4782        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4783        # the DATABASE keyword is required if IF EXISTS is set
4784        # without it, DuckDB throws an error: Parser Error: syntax error at or near "exists" (Line Number: 1)
4785        # ref: https://duckdb.org/docs/stable/sql/statements/attach.html#detach-syntax
4786        exists_sql = " DATABASE IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4787
4788        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4789
4790    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4792        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4793        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4794        return f"{this}{value}"
4795
4796    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4797        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4798        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4799            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4800
4801        return self.func(
4802            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4803            this_sql,
4804            expression.args.get("time"),
4805            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4806            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4807        )
4808
4809    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4810        return (
4811            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4812        )
4813
4814    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4815        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4816        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4817
4818        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4819        if properties:
4820            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4821
4822        return encode
4823
4824    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4826        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4827
4828        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4829        if column_def:
4830            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4831
4832        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4833        if alias:
4834            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4835
4836        return include
4837
4838    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4839        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4840        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4841
4842    def xmlkeyvalueoption_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLKeyValueOption) -> str:
4843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4844        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4845        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else ""
4846        return f"{this}{expr}"
4847
4848    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4849        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4850        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4851        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4852
4853    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4854        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4855    ) -> str:
4856        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4857        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4858
4859        every = expression.args["every"]
4860        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4861            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4862
4863        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4864
4865    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4866        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4867        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4868
4869        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4870
4871    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
4872        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4873        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
4874        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
4875
4876    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
4877        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4878        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4879        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4881        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4882        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4883        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
4884        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
4885
4886    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
4887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4888        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4889        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4890        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4891        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
4892        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
4893        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
4894
4895    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
4896        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4897        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4898        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
4899
4900    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
4901        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4902        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
4903
4904    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
4905        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4907        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4908        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4909        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
4910
4911    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
4912        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4913        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4914        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4915        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4917        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4918        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
4919        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
4920        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
4921        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
4922        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4923        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4924        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4925        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4926        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
4927
4928    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4930        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
4931        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
4932        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4933        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4934        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4935        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4936        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4937        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
4938
4939    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
4940        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4941        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"
4942
4943    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
4944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4945        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
4946        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
4947        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
4948        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"
4949
4950    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
4951        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
4952
4953    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
4954        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
4955        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
4956        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
4957
4958        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4959        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
4960            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
4961
4962        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"
4963
4964    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
4965        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4967        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4968        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
4969        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
4970
4971        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"
4972
4973        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"
4974
4975    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4976        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
4977        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"
4978
4979    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
4980        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
4981
4982    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
4983        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)
4984
4985    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4986        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)
4987
4988    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
4989        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
4990        return ""
4991
4992    def get_put_sql(self, expression: exp.Put | exp.Get) -> str:
4993        # Snowflake GET/PUT statements:
4994        #   PUT <file> <internalStage> <properties>
4995        #   GET <internalStage> <file> <properties>
4996        props = expression.args.get("properties")
4997        props_sql = self.properties(props, prefix=" ", sep=" ", wrapped=False) if props else ""
4998        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4999        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
5000
5001        if isinstance(expression, exp.Put):
5002            return f"PUT {this} {target}{props_sql}"
5003        else:
5004            return f"GET {target} {this}{props_sql}"
5005
5006    def translatecharacters_sql(self, expression: exp.TranslateCharacters):
5007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
5008        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
5009        with_error = " WITH ERROR" if expression.args.get("with_error") else ""
5010        return f"TRANSLATE({this} USING {expr}{with_error})"