1"""sqlglot expressions query."""
   2
   3from __future__ import annotations
   4
   5import typing as t
   6
   7from sqlglot.errors import ParseError
   8from sqlglot.helper import trait, ensure_list
   9from sqlglot.expressions.core import (
  10    Aliases,
  11    Column,
  12    Condition,
  13    Distinct,
  14    Dot,
  15    Expr,
  16    Expression,
  17    Func,
  18    Hint,
  19    Identifier,
  20    In,
  21    _apply_builder,
  22    _apply_child_list_builder,
  23    _apply_list_builder,
  24    _apply_conjunction_builder,
  25    _apply_set_operation,
  26    ExpOrStr,
  27    QUERY_MODIFIERS,
  28    maybe_parse,
  29    maybe_copy,
  30    to_identifier,
  31    convert,
  32    and_,
  33    alias_,
  34    column,
  35)
  36
  37if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  38    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  39    from sqlglot.expressions.datatypes import DataType
  40    from sqlglot.expressions.constraints import ColumnConstraint
  41    from sqlglot.expressions.ddl import Create
  42    from sqlglot.expressions.array import Unnest
  43    from sqlglot._typing import E, ParserArgs, ParserNoDialectArgs
  44    from typing_extensions import Unpack
  45
  46    S = t.TypeVar("S", bound="SetOperation")
  47    Q = t.TypeVar("Q", bound="Query")
  48
  49
  50def _apply_cte_builder(
  51    instance: E,
  52    alias: ExpOrStr,
  53    as_: ExpOrStr,
  54    recursive: bool | None = None,
  55    materialized: bool | None = None,
  56    append: bool = True,
  57    dialect: DialectType = None,
  58    copy: bool = True,
  59    scalar: bool | None = None,
  60    **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
  61) -> E:
  62    alias_expression = maybe_parse(alias, dialect=dialect, into=TableAlias, **opts)
  63    as_expression = maybe_parse(as_, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
  64    if scalar and not isinstance(as_expression, Subquery):
  65        # scalar CTE must be wrapped in a subquery
  66        as_expression = Subquery(this=as_expression)
  67    cte = CTE(this=as_expression, alias=alias_expression, materialized=materialized, scalar=scalar)
  68    return _apply_child_list_builder(
  69        cte,
  70        instance=instance,
  71        arg="with_",
  72        append=append,
  73        copy=copy,
  74        into=With,
  75        properties={"recursive": recursive} if recursive else {},
  76    )
  77
  78
  79@trait
  80class Selectable(Expr):
  81    @property
  82    def selects(self) -> list[Expr]:
  83        raise NotImplementedError("Subclasses must implement selects")
  84
  85    @property
  86    def named_selects(self) -> list[str]:
  87        return _named_selects(self)
  88
  89
  90def _named_selects(self: Expr) -> list[str]:
  91    selectable = t.cast(Selectable, self)
  92    return [select.output_name for select in selectable.selects]
  93
  94
  95@trait
  96class DerivedTable(Selectable):
  97    @property
  98    def selects(self) -> list[Expr]:
  99        this = self.this
 100        return this.selects if isinstance(this, Query) else []
 101
 102
 103@trait
 104class UDTF(DerivedTable):
 105    @property
 106    def selects(self) -> list[Expr]:
 107        alias = self.args.get("alias")
 108        return alias.columns if alias else []
 109
 110
 111@trait
 112class Query(Selectable):
 113    """Trait for any SELECT/UNION/etc. query expression."""
 114
 115    @property
 116    def ctes(self) -> list[CTE]:
 117        with_ = self.args.get("with_")
 118        return with_.expressions if with_ else []
 119
 120    def select(
 121        self: Q,
 122        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
 123        append: bool = True,
 124        dialect: DialectType = None,
 125        copy: bool = True,
 126        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
 127    ) -> Q:
 128        raise NotImplementedError("Query objects must implement `select`")
 129
 130    def subquery(self, alias: ExpOrStr | None = None, copy: bool = True) -> Subquery:
 131        """
 132        Returns a `Subquery` that wraps around this query.
 133
 134        Example:
 135            >>> subquery = Select().select("x").from_("tbl").subquery()
 136            >>> Select().select("x").from_(subquery).sql()
 137            'SELECT x FROM (SELECT x FROM tbl)'
 138
 139        Args:
 140            alias: an optional alias for the subquery.
 141            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
 142        """
 143        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
 144        if not isinstance(alias, Expr):
 145            alias = TableAlias(this=to_identifier(alias)) if alias else None
 146
 147        return Subquery(this=instance, alias=alias)
 148
 149    def limit(
 150        self: Q,
 151        expression: ExpOrStr | int,
 152        dialect: DialectType = None,
 153        copy: bool = True,
 154        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
 155    ) -> Q:
 156        """
 157        Adds a LIMIT clause to this query.
 158
 159        Example:
 160            >>> Select().select("1").union(Select().select("1")).limit(1).sql()
 161            'SELECT 1 UNION SELECT 1 LIMIT 1'
 162
 163        Args:
 164            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
 165                This can also be an integer.
 166                If a `Limit` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 167                If another `Expr` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Limit`.
 168            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 169            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
 170            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 171
 172        Returns:
 173            A limited Select expression.
 174        """
 175        return _apply_builder(
 176            expression=expression,
 177            instance=self,
 178            arg="limit",
 179            into=Limit,
 180            prefix="LIMIT",
 181            dialect=dialect,
 182            copy=copy,
 183            into_arg="expression",
 184            **opts,
 185        )
 186
 187    def offset(
 188        self: Q,
 189        expression: ExpOrStr | int,
 190        dialect: DialectType = None,
 191        copy: bool = True,
 192        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
 193    ) -> Q:
 194        """
 195        Set the OFFSET expression.
 196
 197        Example:
 198            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").offset(10).sql()
 199            'SELECT x FROM tbl OFFSET 10'
 200
 201        Args:
 202            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
 203                This can also be an integer.
 204                If a `Offset` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
 205                If another `Expr` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Offset`.
 206            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 207            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
 208            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 209
 210        Returns:
 211            The modified Select expression.
 212        """
 213        return _apply_builder(
 214            expression=expression,
 215            instance=self,
 216            arg="offset",
 217            into=Offset,
 218            prefix="OFFSET",
 219            dialect=dialect,
 220            copy=copy,
 221            into_arg="expression",
 222            **opts,
 223        )
 224
 225    def order_by(
 226        self: Q,
 227        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
 228        append: bool = True,
 229        dialect: DialectType = None,
 230        copy: bool = True,
 231        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
 232    ) -> Q:
 233        """
 234        Set the ORDER BY expression.
 235
 236        Example:
 237            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").order_by("x DESC").sql()
 238            'SELECT x FROM tbl ORDER BY x DESC'
 239
 240        Args:
 241            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
 242                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
 243                If another `Expr` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Order`.
 244            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
 245                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
 246            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 247            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
 248            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 249
 250        Returns:
 251            The modified Select expression.
 252        """
 253        return _apply_child_list_builder(
 254            *expressions,
 255            instance=self,
 256            arg="order",
 257            append=append,
 258            copy=copy,
 259            prefix="ORDER BY",
 260            into=Order,
 261            dialect=dialect,
 262            **opts,
 263        )
 264
 265    def where(
 266        self: Q,
 267        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
 268        append: bool = True,
 269        dialect: DialectType = None,
 270        copy: bool = True,
 271        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
 272    ) -> Q:
 273        """
 274        Append to or set the WHERE expressions.
 275
 276        Examples:
 277            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a' OR x < 'b'").sql()
 278            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' OR x < 'b'"
 279
 280        Args:
 281            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
 282                If an `Expr` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 283                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
 284            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
 285                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
 286            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
 287            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
 288            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 289
 290        Returns:
 291            The modified expression.
 292        """
 293        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
 294            *[expr.this if isinstance(expr, Where) else expr for expr in expressions],
 295            instance=self,
 296            arg="where",
 297            append=append,
 298            into=Where,
 299            dialect=dialect,
 300            copy=copy,
 301            **opts,
 302        )
 303
 304    def with_(
 305        self: Q,
 306        alias: ExpOrStr,
 307        as_: ExpOrStr,
 308        recursive: bool | None = None,
 309        materialized: bool | None = None,
 310        append: bool = True,
 311        dialect: DialectType = None,
 312        copy: bool = True,
 313        scalar: bool | None = None,
 314        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
 315    ) -> Q:
 316        """
 317        Append to or set the common table expressions.
 318
 319        Example:
 320            >>> Select().with_("tbl2", as_="SELECT * FROM tbl").select("x").from_("tbl2").sql()
 321            'WITH tbl2 AS (SELECT * FROM tbl) SELECT x FROM tbl2'
 322
 323        Args:
 324            alias: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
 325                If an `Expr` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
 326            as_: the SQL code string to parse as the table expression.
 327                If an `Expr` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 328            recursive: set the RECURSIVE part of the expression. Defaults to `False`.
 329            materialized: set the MATERIALIZED part of the expression.
 330            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
 331                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
 332            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 333            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
 334            scalar: if `True`, this is a scalar common table expression.
 335            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 336
 337        Returns:
 338            The modified expression.
 339        """
 340        return _apply_cte_builder(
 341            self,
 342            alias,
 343            as_,
 344            recursive=recursive,
 345            materialized=materialized,
 346            append=append,
 347            dialect=dialect,
 348            copy=copy,
 349            scalar=scalar,
 350            **opts,
 351        )
 352
 353    def union(
 354        self,
 355        *expressions: ExpOrStr,
 356        distinct: bool = True,
 357        dialect: DialectType = None,
 358        copy: bool = True,
 359        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
 360    ) -> Union:
 361        """
 362        Builds a UNION expression.
 363
 364        Example:
 365            >>> import sqlglot
 366            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").union("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
 367            'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
 368
 369        Args:
 370            expressions: the SQL code strings.
 371                If `Expr` instances are passed, they will be used as-is.
 372            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
 373            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 374            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 375
 376        Returns:
 377            The new Union expression.
 378        """
 379        return union(self, *expressions, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 380
 381    def intersect(
 382        self,
 383        *expressions: ExpOrStr,
 384        distinct: bool = True,
 385        dialect: DialectType = None,
 386        copy: bool = True,
 387        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
 388    ) -> Intersect:
 389        """
 390        Builds an INTERSECT expression.
 391
 392        Example:
 393            >>> import sqlglot
 394            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").intersect("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
 395            'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
 396
 397        Args:
 398            expressions: the SQL code strings.
 399                If `Expr` instances are passed, they will be used as-is.
 400            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
 401            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 402            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 403
 404        Returns:
 405            The new Intersect expression.
 406        """
 407        return intersect(self, *expressions, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 408
 409    def except_(
 410        self,
 411        *expressions: ExpOrStr,
 412        distinct: bool = True,
 413        dialect: DialectType = None,
 414        copy: bool = True,
 415        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
 416    ) -> Except:
 417        """
 418        Builds an EXCEPT expression.
 419
 420        Example:
 421            >>> import sqlglot
 422            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("SELECT * FROM foo").except_("SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
 423            'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
 424
 425        Args:
 426            expressions: the SQL code strings.
 427                If `Expr` instance are passed, they will be used as-is.
 428            distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
 429            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
 430            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 431
 432        Returns:
 433            The new Except expression.
 434        """
 435        return except_(self, *expressions, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
 436
 437
 438class QueryBand(Expression):
 439    arg_types = {"this": True, "scope": False, "update": False}
 440
 441
 442class RecursiveWithSearch(Expression):
 443    arg_types = {"kind": True, "this": True, "expression": True, "using": False}
 444
 445
 446class With(Expression):
 447    arg_types = {"expressions": False, "recursive": False, "search": False, "udfs": False}
 448
 449    @property
 450    def recursive(self) -> bool:
 451        return bool(self.args.get("recursive"))
 452
 453
 454class CTE(Expression, DerivedTable):
 455    arg_types = {
 456        "this": True,
 457        "alias": True,
 458        "scalar": False,
 459        "materialized": False,
 460        "key_expressions": False,
 461    }
 462
 463
 464class ProjectionDef(Expression):
 465    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
 466
 467
 468class TableAlias(Expression):
 469    arg_types = {"this": False, "columns": False}
 470
 471    @property
 472    def columns(self) -> list[t.Any]:
 473        return self.args.get("columns") or []
 474
 475
 476class BitString(Expression, Condition):
 477    is_primitive = True
 478
 479
 480class HexString(Expression, Condition):
 481    arg_types = {"this": True, "is_integer": False}
 482    is_primitive = True
 483
 484
 485class ByteString(Expression, Condition):
 486    arg_types = {"this": True, "is_bytes": False}
 487    is_primitive = True
 488
 489
 490class RawString(Expression, Condition):
 491    is_primitive = True
 492
 493
 494class UnicodeString(Expression, Condition):
 495    arg_types = {"this": True, "escape": False}
 496
 497
 498class ColumnPosition(Expression):
 499    arg_types = {"this": False, "position": True}
 500
 501
 502class ColumnDef(Expression):
 503    arg_types = {
 504        "this": True,
 505        "kind": False,
 506        "constraints": False,
 507        "exists": False,
 508        "position": False,
 509        "default": False,
 510        "output": False,
 511    }
 512
 513    @property
 514    def constraints(self) -> list[ColumnConstraint]:
 515        return self.args.get("constraints") or []
 516
 517    @property
 518    def kind(self) -> DataType | None:
 519        return self.args.get("kind")
 520
 521
 522class Changes(Expression):
 523    arg_types = {"information": True, "at_before": False, "end": False}
 524
 525
 526class Connect(Expression):
 527    arg_types = {"start": False, "connect": True, "nocycle": False}
 528
 529
 530class Prior(Expression):
 531    pass
 532
 533
 534class Into(Expression):
 535    arg_types = {
 536        "this": False,
 537        "temporary": False,
 538        "unlogged": False,
 539        "bulk_collect": False,
 540        "expressions": False,
 541    }
 542
 543
 544class From(Expression):
 545    @property
 546    def name(self) -> str:
 547        return self.this.name
 548
 549    @property
 550    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
 551        return self.this.alias_or_name
 552
 553
 554class Having(Expression):
 555    pass
 556
 557
 558class Index(Expression):
 559    arg_types = {
 560        "this": False,
 561        "table": False,
 562        "unique": False,
 563        "primary": False,
 564        "amp": False,  # teradata
 565        "params": False,
 566    }
 567
 568
 569class ConditionalInsert(Expression):
 570    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False, "else_": False}
 571
 572
 573class MultitableInserts(Expression):
 574    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "kind": True, "source": True}
 575
 576
 577class OnCondition(Expression):
 578    arg_types = {"error": False, "empty": False, "null": False}
 579
 580
 581class Introducer(Expression):
 582    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
 583
 584
 585class National(Expression):
 586    is_primitive = True
 587
 588
 589class Partition(Expression):
 590    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "subpartition": False}
 591
 592
 593class PartitionRange(Expression):
 594    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False, "expressions": False}
 595
 596
 597class PartitionId(Expression):
 598    pass
 599
 600
 601class Fetch(Expression):
 602    arg_types = {
 603        "direction": False,
 604        "count": False,
 605        "limit_options": False,
 606    }
 607
 608
 609class Grant(Expression):
 610    arg_types = {
 611        "privileges": True,
 612        "kind": False,
 613        "securable": True,
 614        "principals": True,
 615        "grant_option": False,
 616    }
 617
 618
 619class Revoke(Expression):
 620    arg_types = {**Grant.arg_types, "cascade": False}
 621
 622
 623class Group(Expression):
 624    arg_types = {
 625        "expressions": False,
 626        "grouping_sets": False,
 627        "cube": False,
 628        "rollup": False,
 629        "totals": False,
 630        "all": False,
 631    }
 632
 633
 634class Cube(Expression):
 635    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
 636
 637
 638class Rollup(Expression):
 639    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
 640
 641
 642class GroupingSets(Expression):
 643    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
 644
 645
 646class Lambda(Expression):
 647    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True, "colon": False}
 648
 649
 650class Limit(Expression):
 651    arg_types = {
 652        "this": False,
 653        "expression": True,
 654        "offset": False,
 655        "limit_options": False,
 656        "expressions": False,
 657    }
 658
 659
 660class LimitOptions(Expression):
 661    arg_types = {
 662        "percent": False,
 663        "rows": False,
 664        "with_ties": False,
 665    }
 666
 667
 668class Join(Expression):
 669    arg_types = {
 670        "this": True,
 671        "on": False,
 672        "side": False,
 673        "kind": False,
 674        "using": False,
 675        "method": False,
 676        "global_": False,
 677        "hint": False,
 678        "match_condition": False,  # Snowflake
 679        "directed": False,  # Snowflake
 680        "expressions": False,
 681        "pivots": False,
 682    }
 683
 684    @property
 685    def method(self) -> str:
 686        return self.text("method").upper()
 687
 688    @property
 689    def kind(self) -> str:
 690        return self.text("kind").upper()
 691
 692    @property
 693    def side(self) -> str:
 694        return self.text("side").upper()
 695
 696    @property
 697    def hint(self) -> str:
 698        return self.text("hint").upper()
 699
 700    @property
 701    def alias_or_name(self) -> str:
 702        return self.this.alias_or_name
 703
 704    @property
 705    def is_semi_or_anti_join(self) -> bool:
 706        return self.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI")
 707
 708    def on(
 709        self,
 710        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
 711        append: bool = True,
 712        dialect: DialectType = None,
 713        copy: bool = True,
 714        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
 715    ) -> Join:
 716        """
 717        Append to or set the ON expressions.
 718
 719        Example:
 720            >>> import sqlglot
 721            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).on("y = 1").sql()
 722            'JOIN x ON y = 1'
 723
 724        Args:
 725            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
 726                If an `Expr` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 727                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
 728            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
 729                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
 730            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
 731            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
 732            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 733
 734        Returns:
 735            The modified Join expression.
 736        """
 737        join = _apply_conjunction_builder(
 738            *expressions,
 739            instance=self,
 740            arg="on",
 741            append=append,
 742            dialect=dialect,
 743            copy=copy,
 744            **opts,
 745        )
 746
 747        if join.kind == "CROSS":
 748            join.set("kind", None)
 749
 750        return join
 751
 752    def using(
 753        self,
 754        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
 755        append: bool = True,
 756        dialect: DialectType = None,
 757        copy: bool = True,
 758        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
 759    ) -> Join:
 760        """
 761        Append to or set the USING expressions.
 762
 763        Example:
 764            >>> import sqlglot
 765            >>> sqlglot.parse_one("JOIN x", into=Join).using("foo", "bla").sql()
 766            'JOIN x USING (foo, bla)'
 767
 768        Args:
 769            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
 770                If an `Expr` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
 771            append: if `True`, concatenate the new expressions to the existing "using" list.
 772                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
 773            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
 774            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
 775            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
 776
 777        Returns:
 778            The modified Join expression.
 779        """
 780        join = _apply_list_builder(
 781            *expressions,
 782            instance=self,
 783            arg="using",
 784            append=append,
 785            dialect=dialect,
 786            copy=copy,
 787            **opts,
 788        )
 789
 790        if join.kind == "CROSS":
 791            join.set("kind", None)
 792
 793        return join
 794
 795
 796class Lateral(Expression, UDTF):
 797    arg_types = {
 798        "this": True,
 799        "view": False,
 800        "outer": False,
 801        "alias": False,
 802        "cross_apply": False,  # True -> CROSS APPLY, False -> OUTER APPLY
 803        "ordinality": False,
 804    }
 805
 806
 807class TableFromRows(Expression, UDTF):
 808    arg_types = {
 809        "this": True,
 810        "alias": False,
 811        "joins": False,
 812        "pivots": False,
 813        "sample": False,
 814    }
 815
 816
 817class MatchRecognizeMeasure(Expression):
 818    arg_types = {
 819        "this": True,
 820        "window_frame": False,
 821    }
 822
 823
 824class MatchRecognize(Expression):
 825    arg_types = {
 826        "partition_by": False,
 827        "order": False,
 828        "measures": False,
 829        "rows": False,
 830        "after": False,
 831        "pattern": False,
 832        "define": False,
 833        "alias": False,
 834    }
 835
 836
 837class Final(Expression):
 838    pass
 839
 840
 841class Offset(Expression):
 842    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True, "expressions": False}
 843
 844
 845class Order(Expression):
 846    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": True, "siblings": False}
 847
 848
 849class WithFill(Expression):
 850    arg_types = {
 851        "from_": False,
 852        "to": False,
 853        "step": False,
 854        "interpolate": False,
 855    }
 856
 857
 858class SkipJSONColumn(Expression):
 859    arg_types = {"regexp": False, "expression": True}
 860
 861
 862class Cluster(Expression):
 863    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
 864
 865
 866class Distribute(Order):
 867    pass
 868
 869
 870class Sort(Order):
 871    pass
 872
 873
 874class Qualify(Expression):
 875    pass
 876
 877
 878class InputOutputFormat(Expression):
 879    arg_types = {"input_format": False, "output_format": False}
 880
 881
 882class Return(Expression):
 883    pass
 884
 885
 886class Tuple(Expression):
 887    arg_types = {"expressions": False}
 888
 889    def isin(
 890        self,
 891        *expressions: t.Any,
 892        query: ExpOrStr | None = None,
 893        unnest: ExpOrStr | None | list[ExpOrStr] | tuple[ExpOrStr, ...] = None,
 894        copy: bool = True,
 895        **opts: Unpack[ParserArgs],
 896    ) -> In:
 897        return In(
 898            this=maybe_copy(self, copy),
 899            expressions=[convert(e, copy=copy) for e in expressions],
 900            query=maybe_parse(query, copy=copy, **opts) if query else None,
 901            unnest=(
 902                Unnest(
 903                    expressions=[
 904                        maybe_parse(e, copy=copy, **opts)
 905                        for e in t.cast(list[ExpOrStr], ensure_list(unnest))
 906                    ]
 907                )
 908                if unnest
 909                else None
 910            ),
 911        )
 912
 913
 914class QueryOption(Expression):
 915    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
 916
 917
 918# FOR { XML | JSON } query modifier; `kind` is the discriminant ("XML" or "JSON").
 919class ForClause(Expression):
 920    arg_types = {"kind": True, "expressions": False}
 921
 922
 923class WithTableHint(Expression):
 924    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
 925
 926
 927class IndexTableHint(Expression):
 928    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "target": False}
 929
 930
 931class HistoricalData(Expression):
 932    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "expression": True}
 933
 934
 935class Put(Expression):
 936    arg_types = {"this": True, "target": True, "properties": False}
 937
 938
 939class Get(Expression):
 940    arg_types = {"this": True, "target": True, "properties": False}
 941
 942
 943class Table(Expression, Selectable):
 944    arg_types = {
 945        "this": False,
 946        "alias": False,
 947        "db": False,
 948        "catalog": False,
 949        "laterals": False,
 950        "joins": False,
 951        "pivots": False,
 952        "hints": False,
 953        "system_time": False,
 954        "version": False,
 955        "format": False,
 956        "pattern": False,
 957        "ordinality": False,
 958        "when": False,
 959        "only": False,
 960        "partition": False,
 961        "changes": False,
 962        "rows_from": False,
 963        "sample": False,
 964        "indexed": False,
 965    }
 966
 967    @property
 968    def name(self) -> str:
 969        if not self.this or isinstance(self.this, Func):
 970            return ""
 971        return self.this.name
 972
 973    @property
 974    def db(self) -> str:
 975        return self.text("db")
 976
 977    @property
 978    def catalog(self) -> str:
 979        return self.text("catalog")
 980
 981    @property
 982    def selects(self) -> list[Expr]:
 983        return []
 984
 985    @property
 986    def named_selects(self) -> list[str]:
 987        return []
 988
 989    @property
 990    def parts(self) -> list[Expr]:
 991        """Return the parts of a table in order catalog, db, table."""
 992        parts: list[Expr] = []
 993
 994        for arg in ("catalog", "db", "this"):
 995            part = self.args.get(arg)
 996
 997            if isinstance(part, Dot):
 998                parts.extend(part.flatten())
 999            elif isinstance(part, Expr):
1000                parts.append(part)
1001
1002        return parts
1003
1004    def to_column(self, copy: bool = True) -> Expr:
1005        parts = self.parts
1006        last_part = parts[-1]
1007
1008        if isinstance(last_part, Identifier):
1009            col: Expr = column(*reversed(parts[0:4]), fields=parts[4:], copy=copy)  # type: ignore
1010        else:
1011            # This branch will be reached if a function or array is wrapped in a `Table`
1012            col = last_part
1013
1014        alias = self.args.get("alias")
1015        if alias:
1016            col = alias_(col, alias.this, copy=copy)
1017
1018        return col
1019
1020
1021class SetOperation(Expression, Query):
1022    arg_types = {
1023        "with_": False,
1024        "this": True,
1025        "expression": True,
1026        "distinct": False,
1027        "by_name": False,
1028        "side": False,
1029        "kind": False,
1030        "on": False,
1031        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
1032    }
1033
1034    def select(
1035        self: S,
1036        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
1037        append: bool = True,
1038        dialect: DialectType = None,
1039        copy: bool = True,
1040        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
1041    ) -> S:
1042        this = maybe_copy(self, copy)
1043        this.this.unnest().select(*expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
1044        this.expression.unnest().select(
1045            *expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts
1046        )
1047        return this
1048
1049    @property
1050    def named_selects(self) -> list[str]:
1051        expr: Expr = self
1052        while isinstance(expr, SetOperation):
1053            if expr.args.get("by_name"):
1054                left = t.cast(Selectable, expr.this.unnest()).named_selects
1055                right = t.cast(Selectable, expr.expression.unnest()).named_selects
1056                return list(dict.fromkeys(left + right))
1057
1058            expr = expr.this.unnest()
1059        return _named_selects(expr)
1060
1061    @property
1062    def is_star(self) -> bool:
1063        return self.this.is_star or self.expression.is_star
1064
1065    @property
1066    def selects(self) -> list[Expr]:
1067        expr: Expr = self
1068        while isinstance(expr, SetOperation):
1069            expr = expr.this.unnest()
1070        return getattr(expr, "selects", [])
1071
1072    @property
1073    def left(self) -> Query:
1074        return self.this
1075
1076    @property
1077    def right(self) -> Query:
1078        return self.expression
1079
1080    @property
1081    def kind(self) -> str:
1082        return self.text("kind").upper()
1083
1084    @property
1085    def side(self) -> str:
1086        return self.text("side").upper()
1087
1088
1089class Union(SetOperation):
1090    pass
1091
1092
1093class Except(SetOperation):
1094    pass
1095
1096
1097class Intersect(SetOperation):
1098    pass
1099
1100
1101class Values(Expression, UDTF):
1102    arg_types = {
1103        "expressions": True,
1104        "alias": False,
1105        "order": False,
1106        "limit": False,
1107        "offset": False,
1108    }
1109
1110
1111class Version(Expression):
1112    """
1113    Time travel, iceberg, bigquery etc
1114    https://trino.io/docs/current/connector/iceberg.html?highlight=snapshot#using-snapshots
1115    https://www.databricks.com/blog/2019/02/04/introducing-delta-time-travel-for-large-scale-data-lakes.html
1116    https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax#for_system_time_as_of
1117    https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/relational-databases/tables/querying-data-in-a-system-versioned-temporal-table?view=sql-server-ver16
1118    this is either TIMESTAMP or VERSION
1119    kind is ("AS OF", "BETWEEN")
1120    """
1121
1122    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "expression": False}
1123
1124
1125class Schema(Expression):
1126    arg_types = {"this": False, "expressions": False}
1127
1128
1129class Lock(Expression):
1130    arg_types = {"update": True, "expressions": False, "wait": False, "key": False}
1131
1132
1133class Select(Expression, Query):
1134    arg_types = {
1135        "with_": False,
1136        "kind": False,
1137        "expressions": False,
1138        "hint": False,
1139        "distinct": False,
1140        "into": False,
1141        "from_": False,
1142        "operation_modifiers": False,
1143        "exclude": False,
1144        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
1145    }
1146
1147    def from_(
1148        self,
1149        expression: ExpOrStr,
1150        dialect: DialectType = None,
1151        copy: bool = True,
1152        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
1153    ) -> Select:
1154        """
1155        Set the FROM expression.
1156
1157        Example:
1158            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sql()
1159            'SELECT x FROM tbl'
1160
1161        Args:
1162            expression : the SQL code strings to parse.
1163                If a `From` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1164                If another `Expr` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `From`.
1165            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1166            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1167            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1168
1169        Returns:
1170            The modified Select expression.
1171        """
1172        return _apply_builder(
1173            expression=expression,
1174            instance=self,
1175            arg="from_",
1176            into=From,
1177            prefix="FROM",
1178            dialect=dialect,
1179            copy=copy,
1180            **opts,
1181        )
1182
1183    def group_by(
1184        self,
1185        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
1186        append: bool = True,
1187        dialect: DialectType = None,
1188        copy: bool = True,
1189        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
1190    ) -> Select:
1191        """
1192        Set the GROUP BY expression.
1193
1194        Example:
1195            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x", "COUNT(1)").group_by("x").sql()
1196            'SELECT x, COUNT(1) FROM tbl GROUP BY x'
1197
1198        Args:
1199            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1200                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1201                If another `Expr` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Group`.
1202                If nothing is passed in then a group by is not applied to the expression
1203            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1204                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Group` expression into a single expression.
1205            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1206            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1207            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1208
1209        Returns:
1210            The modified Select expression.
1211        """
1212        if not expressions:
1213            return self if not copy else self.copy()
1214
1215        return _apply_child_list_builder(
1216            *expressions,
1217            instance=self,
1218            arg="group",
1219            append=append,
1220            copy=copy,
1221            prefix="GROUP BY",
1222            into=Group,
1223            dialect=dialect,
1224            **opts,
1225        )
1226
1227    def sort_by(
1228        self,
1229        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
1230        append: bool = True,
1231        dialect: DialectType = None,
1232        copy: bool = True,
1233        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
1234    ) -> Select:
1235        """
1236        Set the SORT BY expression.
1237
1238        Example:
1239            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").sort_by("x DESC").sql(dialect="hive")
1240            'SELECT x FROM tbl SORT BY x DESC'
1241
1242        Args:
1243            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1244                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1245                If another `Expr` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `SORT`.
1246            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1247                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
1248            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1249            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1250            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1251
1252        Returns:
1253            The modified Select expression.
1254        """
1255        return _apply_child_list_builder(
1256            *expressions,
1257            instance=self,
1258            arg="sort",
1259            append=append,
1260            copy=copy,
1261            prefix="SORT BY",
1262            into=Sort,
1263            dialect=dialect,
1264            **opts,
1265        )
1266
1267    def cluster_by(
1268        self,
1269        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
1270        append: bool = True,
1271        dialect: DialectType = None,
1272        copy: bool = True,
1273        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
1274    ) -> Select:
1275        """
1276        Set the CLUSTER BY expression.
1277
1278        Example:
1279            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").cluster_by("x").sql(dialect="hive")
1280            'SELECT x FROM tbl CLUSTER BY x'
1281
1282        Args:
1283            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1284                If a `Group` instance is passed, this is used as-is.
1285                If another `Expr` instance is passed, it will be wrapped in a `Cluster`.
1286            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1287                Otherwise, this flattens all the `Order` expression into a single expression.
1288            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
1289            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1290            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1291
1292        Returns:
1293            The modified Select expression.
1294        """
1295        return _apply_child_list_builder(
1296            *expressions,
1297            instance=self,
1298            arg="cluster",
1299            append=append,
1300            copy=copy,
1301            prefix="CLUSTER BY",
1302            into=Cluster,
1303            dialect=dialect,
1304            **opts,
1305        )
1306
1307    def select(
1308        self,
1309        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
1310        append: bool = True,
1311        dialect: DialectType = None,
1312        copy: bool = True,
1313        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
1314    ) -> Select:
1315        return _apply_list_builder(
1316            *expressions,
1317            instance=self,
1318            arg="expressions",
1319            append=append,
1320            dialect=dialect,
1321            into=Expr,
1322            copy=copy,
1323            **opts,
1324        )
1325
1326    def lateral(
1327        self,
1328        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
1329        append: bool = True,
1330        dialect: DialectType = None,
1331        copy: bool = True,
1332        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
1333    ) -> Select:
1334        """
1335        Append to or set the LATERAL expressions.
1336
1337        Example:
1338            >>> Select().select("x").lateral("OUTER explode(y) tbl2 AS z").from_("tbl").sql()
1339            'SELECT x FROM tbl LATERAL VIEW OUTER EXPLODE(y) tbl2 AS z'
1340
1341        Args:
1342            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1343                If an `Expr` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1344            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1345                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
1346            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1347            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1348            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1349
1350        Returns:
1351            The modified Select expression.
1352        """
1353        return _apply_list_builder(
1354            *expressions,
1355            instance=self,
1356            arg="laterals",
1357            append=append,
1358            into=Lateral,
1359            prefix="LATERAL VIEW",
1360            dialect=dialect,
1361            copy=copy,
1362            **opts,
1363        )
1364
1365    def join(
1366        self,
1367        expression: ExpOrStr,
1368        on: ExpOrStr | list[ExpOrStr] | tuple[ExpOrStr, ...] | None = None,
1369        using: ExpOrStr | list[ExpOrStr] | tuple[ExpOrStr, ...] | None = None,
1370        append: bool = True,
1371        join_type: str | None = None,
1372        join_alias: Identifier | str | None = None,
1373        dialect: DialectType = None,
1374        copy: bool = True,
1375        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
1376    ) -> Select:
1377        """
1378        Append to or set the JOIN expressions.
1379
1380        Example:
1381            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y").sql()
1382            'SELECT * FROM tbl JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
1383
1384            >>> Select().select("1").from_("a").join("b", using=["x", "y", "z"]).sql()
1385            'SELECT 1 FROM a JOIN b USING (x, y, z)'
1386
1387            Use `join_type` to change the type of join:
1388
1389            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").join("tbl2", on="tbl1.y = tbl2.y", join_type="left outer").sql()
1390            'SELECT * FROM tbl LEFT OUTER JOIN tbl2 ON tbl1.y = tbl2.y'
1391
1392        Args:
1393            expression: the SQL code string to parse.
1394                If an `Expr` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1395            on: optionally specify the join "on" criteria as a SQL string.
1396                If an `Expr` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1397            using: optionally specify the join "using" criteria as a SQL string.
1398                If an `Expr` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1399            append: if `True`, add to any existing expressions.
1400                Otherwise, this resets the expressions.
1401            join_type: if set, alter the parsed join type.
1402            join_alias: an optional alias for the joined source.
1403            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1404            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1405            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1406
1407        Returns:
1408            Select: the modified expression.
1409        """
1410        parse_args: ParserArgs = {"dialect": dialect, **opts}
1411        try:
1412            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=Join, prefix="JOIN", **parse_args)
1413        except ParseError:
1414            expression = maybe_parse(expression, into=(Join, Expr), **parse_args)
1415
1416        join = expression if isinstance(expression, Join) else Join(this=expression)
1417
1418        if isinstance(join.this, Select):
1419            join.this.replace(join.this.subquery())
1420
1421        if join_type:
1422            new_join: Join = maybe_parse(f"FROM _ {join_type} JOIN _", **parse_args).find(Join)
1423            method = new_join.method
1424            side = new_join.side
1425            kind = new_join.kind
1426
1427            if method:
1428                join.set("method", method)
1429            if side:
1430                join.set("side", side)
1431            if kind:
1432                join.set("kind", kind)
1433
1434        if on:
1435            on_exprs: list[ExpOrStr] = ensure_list(on)
1436            on = and_(*on_exprs, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts)
1437            join.set("on", on)
1438
1439        if using:
1440            using_exprs: list[ExpOrStr] = ensure_list(using)
1441            join = _apply_list_builder(
1442                *using_exprs,
1443                instance=join,
1444                arg="using",
1445                append=append,
1446                copy=copy,
1447                into=Identifier,
1448                **opts,
1449            )
1450
1451        if join_alias:
1452            join.set("this", alias_(join.this, join_alias, table=True))
1453
1454        return _apply_list_builder(
1455            join,
1456            instance=self,
1457            arg="joins",
1458            append=append,
1459            copy=copy,
1460            **opts,
1461        )
1462
1463    def having(
1464        self,
1465        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
1466        append: bool = True,
1467        dialect: DialectType = None,
1468        copy: bool = True,
1469        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
1470    ) -> Select:
1471        """
1472        Append to or set the HAVING expressions.
1473
1474        Example:
1475            >>> Select().select("x", "COUNT(y)").from_("tbl").group_by("x").having("COUNT(y) > 3").sql()
1476            'SELECT x, COUNT(y) FROM tbl GROUP BY x HAVING COUNT(y) > 3'
1477
1478        Args:
1479            *expressions: the SQL code strings to parse.
1480                If an `Expr` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1481                Multiple expressions are combined with an AND operator.
1482            append: if `True`, AND the new expressions to any existing expression.
1483                Otherwise, this resets the expression.
1484            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expressions.
1485            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1486            opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
1487
1488        Returns:
1489            The modified Select expression.
1490        """
1491        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
1492            *expressions,
1493            instance=self,
1494            arg="having",
1495            append=append,
1496            into=Having,
1497            dialect=dialect,
1498            copy=copy,
1499            **opts,
1500        )
1501
1502    def window(
1503        self,
1504        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
1505        append: bool = True,
1506        dialect: DialectType = None,
1507        copy: bool = True,
1508        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
1509    ) -> Select:
1510        return _apply_list_builder(
1511            *expressions,
1512            instance=self,
1513            arg="windows",
1514            append=append,
1515            into=Window,
1516            dialect=dialect,
1517            copy=copy,
1518            **opts,
1519        )
1520
1521    def qualify(
1522        self,
1523        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
1524        append: bool = True,
1525        dialect: DialectType = None,
1526        copy: bool = True,
1527        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
1528    ) -> Select:
1529        return _apply_conjunction_builder(
1530            *expressions,
1531            instance=self,
1532            arg="qualify",
1533            append=append,
1534            into=Qualify,
1535            dialect=dialect,
1536            copy=copy,
1537            **opts,
1538        )
1539
1540    def distinct(self, *ons: ExpOrStr | None, distinct: bool = True, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
1541        """
1542        Set the OFFSET expression.
1543
1544        Example:
1545            >>> Select().from_("tbl").select("x").distinct().sql()
1546            'SELECT DISTINCT x FROM tbl'
1547
1548        Args:
1549            ons: the expressions to distinct on
1550            distinct: whether the Select should be distinct
1551            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1552
1553        Returns:
1554            Select: the modified expression.
1555        """
1556        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
1557        on = Tuple(expressions=[maybe_parse(on, copy=copy) for on in ons if on]) if ons else None
1558        instance.set("distinct", Distinct(on=on) if distinct else None)
1559        return instance
1560
1561    def ctas(
1562        self,
1563        table: ExpOrStr,
1564        properties: dict | None = None,
1565        dialect: DialectType = None,
1566        copy: bool = True,
1567        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
1568    ) -> Create:
1569        """
1570        Convert this expression to a CREATE TABLE AS statement.
1571
1572        Example:
1573            >>> Select().select("*").from_("tbl").ctas("x").sql()
1574            'CREATE TABLE x AS SELECT * FROM tbl'
1575
1576        Args:
1577            table: the SQL code string to parse as the table name.
1578                If another `Expr` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1579            properties: an optional mapping of table properties
1580            dialect: the dialect used to parse the input table.
1581            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1582            opts: other options to use to parse the input table.
1583
1584        Returns:
1585            The new Create expression.
1586        """
1587        instance = maybe_copy(self, copy)
1588        table_expression = maybe_parse(table, into=Table, dialect=dialect, **opts)
1589
1590        properties_expression = None
1591        if properties:
1592            from sqlglot.expressions.properties import Properties as _Properties
1593
1594            properties_expression = _Properties.from_dict(properties)
1595
1596        from sqlglot.expressions.ddl import Create as _Create
1597
1598        return _Create(
1599            this=table_expression,
1600            kind="TABLE",
1601            expression=instance,
1602            properties=properties_expression,
1603        )
1604
1605    def lock(self, update: bool = True, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
1606        """
1607        Set the locking read mode for this expression.
1608
1609        Examples:
1610            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock().sql("mysql")
1611            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR UPDATE"
1612
1613            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").where("x = 'a'").lock(update=False).sql("mysql")
1614            "SELECT x FROM tbl WHERE x = 'a' FOR SHARE"
1615
1616        Args:
1617            update: if `True`, the locking type will be `FOR UPDATE`, else it will be `FOR SHARE`.
1618            copy: if `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1619
1620        Returns:
1621            The modified expression.
1622        """
1623        inst = maybe_copy(self, copy)
1624        inst.set("locks", [Lock(update=update)])
1625
1626        return inst
1627
1628    def hint(self, *hints: ExpOrStr, dialect: DialectType = None, copy: bool = True) -> Select:
1629        """
1630        Set hints for this expression.
1631
1632        Examples:
1633            >>> Select().select("x").from_("tbl").hint("BROADCAST(y)").sql(dialect="spark")
1634            'SELECT /*+ BROADCAST(y) */ x FROM tbl'
1635
1636        Args:
1637            hints: The SQL code strings to parse as the hints.
1638                If an `Expr` instance is passed, it will be used as-is.
1639            dialect: The dialect used to parse the hints.
1640            copy: If `False`, modify this expression instance in-place.
1641
1642        Returns:
1643            The modified expression.
1644        """
1645        inst = maybe_copy(self, copy)
1646        inst.set(
1647            "hint", Hint(expressions=[maybe_parse(h, copy=copy, dialect=dialect) for h in hints])
1648        )
1649
1650        return inst
1651
1652    @property
1653    def named_selects(self) -> list[str]:
1654        selects = []
1655
1656        for e in self.expressions:
1657            if e.alias_or_name:
1658                selects.append(e.output_name)
1659            elif isinstance(e, Aliases):
1660                selects.extend([a.name for a in e.aliases])
1661        return selects
1662
1663    @property
1664    def is_star(self) -> bool:
1665        return any(expression.is_star for expression in self.expressions)
1666
1667    @property
1668    def selects(self) -> list[Expr]:
1669        return self.expressions
1670
1671
1672class Subquery(Expression, DerivedTable, Query):
1673    is_subquery: t.ClassVar[bool] = True
1674    arg_types = {
1675        "this": True,
1676        "alias": False,
1677        "with_": False,
1678        **QUERY_MODIFIERS,
1679    }
1680
1681    def unnest(self) -> Expr:
1682        """Returns the first non subquery."""
1683        expression: Expr = self
1684        while isinstance(expression, Subquery):
1685            expression = expression.this
1686        return expression
1687
1688    def unwrap(self) -> Subquery:
1689        expression = self
1690        while expression.same_parent and expression.is_wrapper:
1691            expression = t.cast(Subquery, expression.parent)
1692        return expression
1693
1694    def select(
1695        self,
1696        *expressions: ExpOrStr | None,
1697        append: bool = True,
1698        dialect: DialectType = None,
1699        copy: bool = True,
1700        **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
1701    ) -> Subquery:
1702        this = maybe_copy(self, copy)
1703        inner = this.unnest()
1704        if hasattr(inner, "select"):
1705            inner.select(*expressions, append=append, dialect=dialect, copy=False, **opts)
1706        return this
1707
1708    @property
1709    def is_wrapper(self) -> bool:
1710        """
1711        Whether this Subquery acts as a simple wrapper around another expression.
1712
1713        SELECT * FROM (((SELECT * FROM t)))
1714                      ^
1715                      This corresponds to a "wrapper" Subquery node
1716        """
1717        return all(v is None for k, v in self.args.items() if k != "this")
1718
1719    @property
1720    def is_star(self) -> bool:
1721        return self.this.is_star
1722
1723    @property
1724    def output_name(self) -> str:
1725        return self.alias
1726
1727
1728class TableSample(Expression):
1729    arg_types = {
1730        "expressions": False,
1731        "method": False,
1732        "bucket_numerator": False,
1733        "bucket_denominator": False,
1734        "bucket_field": False,
1735        "percent": False,
1736        "rows": False,
1737        "size": False,
1738        "seed": False,
1739    }
1740
1741
1742class Tag(Expression):
1743    """Tags are used for generating arbitrary sql like SELECT <span>x</span>."""
1744
1745    arg_types = {
1746        "this": False,
1747        "prefix": False,
1748        "postfix": False,
1749    }
1750
1751
1752class Pivot(Expression):
1753    arg_types = {
1754        "this": False,
1755        "alias": False,
1756        "expressions": False,
1757        "fields": False,
1758        "unpivot": False,
1759        "using": False,
1760        "group": False,
1761        "columns": False,
1762        "include_nulls": False,
1763        "default_on_null": False,
1764        "into": False,
1765        "with_": False,
1766        "identify_pivot_strings": False,
1767        "prefixed_pivot_columns": False,
1768        "pivot_column_naming": False,
1769        "value_columns_first": False,
1770    }
1771
1772    @property
1773    def unpivot(self) -> bool:
1774        return bool(self.args.get("unpivot"))
1775
1776    @property
1777    def fields(self) -> list[Expr]:
1778        return self.args.get("fields", [])
1779
1780    def output_columns(self, pre_pivot_columns: t.Iterable[str]) -> dict[str, str]:
1781        """
1782        Returns an ordered map of post-rename output column name -> pre-rename
1783        source-side name, in the order the (UN)PIVOT produces them.
1784
1785        For callers that just want the names, iterate the dict (or call .keys()):
1786            >>> from sqlglot import parse_one, exp
1787            >>> piv = parse_one("SELECT * FROM t UNPIVOT(val FOR name IN (a, b))").find(exp.Pivot)
1788            >>> list(piv.output_columns(["a", "b", "c"]))
1789            ['c', 'name', 'val']
1790
1791        AST shape:
1792            PIVOT(SUM(val) FOR name IN ('a', 'b')):
1793                expressions: aggregate(s), e.g. [Sum(this=Column(val))]
1794                fields:      [In(this=Column(name), expressions=[Literal('a'), Literal('b')])]
1795                columns:     optional explicit output identifiers (e.g. set by Snowflake)
1796
1797            UNPIVOT(val FOR name IN (a, b)):
1798                expressions: value Identifier(s), or Tuple(Identifiers) for multi-value
1799                fields:      [In(this=Identifier(name), expressions=[Column(a), Column(b)])]
1800                             For literal-aliased entries (`a AS 'x'`) the IN expressions
1801                             are wrapped in PivotAlias(this=Column, alias=Literal).
1802
1803        Args:
1804            pre_pivot_columns: Columns visible to the operator before it runs
1805                (e.g. the source table or subquery's projections).
1806        """
1807        if self.unpivot:
1808            excluded: set[str] = set()
1809            name_columns: list[Identifier] = []
1810            for field in self.fields:
1811                if not isinstance(field, In):
1812                    continue
1813                if isinstance(field.this, Identifier):
1814                    name_columns.append(field.this)
1815                for e in field.expressions:
1816                    excluded.update(c.output_name for c in e.find_all(Column))
1817            value_columns = [
1818                ident
1819                for e in self.expressions
1820                for ident in (e.expressions if isinstance(e, Tuple) else [e])
1821                if isinstance(ident, Identifier)
1822            ]
1823            # T-SQL emits the value column(s) ahead of the name column, everyone else emits them after it
1824            ordered = (
1825                value_columns + name_columns
1826                if self.args.get("value_columns_first")
1827                else name_columns + value_columns
1828            )
1829            outputs = [i.name for i in ordered]
1830        else:
1831            excluded = {c.output_name for c in self.find_all(Column)}
1832            outputs = [c.output_name for c in self.args.get("columns") or []]
1833            if not outputs:
1834                outputs = [c.alias_or_name for c in self.expressions]
1835
1836        if not excluded or not outputs:
1837            return {}
1838
1839        pre_rename = [c for c in pre_pivot_columns if c not in excluded] + outputs
1840
1841        alias = self.args.get("alias")
1842        renames = alias.args.get("columns") if alias else None
1843
1844        # `PIVOT(...) AS alias(c1, c2, ...)` renames the operator's output columns
1845        # positionally from the front (DuckDB, Snowflake): the user's names cover
1846        # the leading N output columns, remaining columns keep their auto names.
1847        if renames:
1848            rename_names = [r.name for r in renames]
1849            post_rename = rename_names + pre_rename[len(rename_names) :]
1850        else:
1851            post_rename = pre_rename
1852
1853        return dict(zip(post_rename, pre_rename))
1854
1855
1856class UnpivotColumns(Expression):
1857    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": True}
1858
1859
1860class Window(Expression, Condition):
1861    arg_types = {
1862        "this": True,
1863        "partition_by": False,
1864        "order": False,
1865        "spec": False,
1866        "alias": False,
1867        "over": False,
1868        "first": False,
1869    }
1870
1871
1872class WindowSpec(Expression):
1873    arg_types = {
1874        "kind": False,
1875        "start": False,
1876        "start_side": False,
1877        "end": False,
1878        "end_side": False,
1879        "exclude": False,
1880    }
1881
1882
1883class PreWhere(Expression):
1884    pass
1885
1886
1887class Where(Expression):
1888    pass
1889
1890
1891class Analyze(Expression):
1892    arg_types = {
1893        "kind": False,
1894        "this": False,
1895        "options": False,
1896        "mode": False,
1897        "partition": False,
1898        "expression": False,
1899        "properties": False,
1900    }
1901
1902
1903class AnalyzeStatistics(Expression):
1904    arg_types = {
1905        "kind": True,
1906        "option": False,
1907        "this": False,
1908        "expressions": False,
1909    }
1910
1911
1912class AnalyzeHistogram(Expression):
1913    arg_types = {
1914        "this": True,
1915        "expressions": True,
1916        "expression": False,
1917        "update_options": False,
1918    }
1919
1920
1921class AnalyzeSample(Expression):
1922    arg_types = {"kind": True, "sample": True}
1923
1924
1925class AnalyzeListChainedRows(Expression):
1926    arg_types = {"expression": False}
1927
1928
1929class AnalyzeDelete(Expression):
1930    arg_types = {"kind": False}
1931
1932
1933class AnalyzeWith(Expression):
1934    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1935
1936
1937class AnalyzeValidate(Expression):
1938    arg_types = {
1939        "kind": True,
1940        "this": False,
1941        "expression": False,
1942    }
1943
1944
1945class AnalyzeColumns(Expression):
1946    pass
1947
1948
1949class UsingData(Expression):
1950    pass
1951
1952
1953class AddPartition(Expression):
1954    arg_types = {"this": True, "exists": False, "location": False}
1955
1956
1957class AttachOption(Expression):
1958    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
1959
1960
1961class DropPartition(Expression):
1962    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "exists": False}
1963
1964
1965class ReplacePartition(Expression):
1966    arg_types = {"expression": True, "source": True}
1967
1968
1969class TranslateCharacters(Expression):
1970    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True, "with_error": False}
1971
1972
1973class OverflowTruncateBehavior(Expression):
1974    arg_types = {"this": False, "with_count": True}
1975
1976
1977class JSON(Expression):
1978    arg_types = {"this": False, "with_": False, "unique": False}
1979
1980
1981class JSONPath(Expression):
1982    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
1983
1984    @property
1985    def output_name(self) -> str:
1986        last_segment = self.expressions[-1].this
1987        return last_segment if isinstance(last_segment, str) else ""
1988
1989
1990class JSONPathPart(Expression):
1991    arg_types = {}
1992
1993
1994class JSONPathFilter(JSONPathPart):
1995    arg_types = {"this": True}
1996
1997
1998class JSONPathKey(JSONPathPart):
1999    arg_types = {"this": True, "quoted": False}
2000
2001
2002class JSONPathRecursive(JSONPathPart):
2003    arg_types = {"this": False}
2004
2005
2006class JSONPathRoot(JSONPathPart):
2007    pass
2008
2009
2010class JSONPathScript(JSONPathPart):
2011    arg_types = {"this": True}
2012
2013
2014class JSONPathSlice(JSONPathPart):
2015    arg_types = {"start": False, "end": False, "step": False}
2016
2017
2018class JSONPathSelector(JSONPathPart):
2019    arg_types = {"this": True}
2020
2021
2022class JSONPathSubscript(JSONPathPart):
2023    arg_types = {"this": True}
2024
2025
2026class JSONPathUnion(JSONPathPart):
2027    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2028
2029
2030class JSONPathWildcard(JSONPathPart):
2031    pass
2032
2033
2034class FormatJson(Expression):
2035    pass
2036
2037
2038class JSONKeyValue(Expression):
2039    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2040
2041
2042class JSONColumnDef(Expression):
2043    arg_types = {
2044        "this": False,
2045        "kind": False,
2046        "path": False,
2047        "nested_schema": False,
2048        "ordinality": False,
2049        "format_json": False,
2050    }
2051
2052
2053class JSONSchema(Expression):
2054    arg_types = {"expressions": True}
2055
2056
2057class JSONValue(Expression):
2058    arg_types = {
2059        "this": True,
2060        "path": True,
2061        "returning": False,
2062        "on_condition": False,
2063    }
2064
2065
2066class JSONValueArray(Expression, Func):
2067    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
2068
2069
2070class OpenJSONColumnDef(Expression):
2071    arg_types = {"this": True, "kind": True, "path": False, "as_json": False}
2072
2073
2074class JSONExtractQuote(Expression):
2075    arg_types = {
2076        "option": True,
2077        "scalar": False,
2078    }
2079
2080
2081class ScopeResolution(Expression):
2082    arg_types = {"this": False, "expression": True}
2083
2084
2085class Stream(Expression):
2086    pass
2087
2088
2089class ModelAttribute(Expression):
2090    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": True}
2091
2092
2093class XMLNamespace(Expression):
2094    pass
2095
2096
2097class XMLKeyValueOption(Expression):
2098    arg_types = {"this": True, "expression": False}
2099
2100
2101class Semicolon(Expression):
2102    arg_types = {}
2103
2104
2105class TableColumn(Expression):
2106    @property
2107    def output_name(self) -> str:
2108        return self.name
2109
2110
2111class Variadic(Expression):
2112    pass
2113
2114
2115class StoredProcedure(Expression):
2116    arg_types = {"this": True, "expressions": False, "wrapped": False}
2117
2118
2119class Block(Expression):
2120    arg_types = {"expressions": True, "begin": False}
2121
2122
2123class IfBlock(Expression):
2124    arg_types = {"this": True, "true": True, "false": False}
2125
2126
2127class CaseStatement(Expression):
2128    arg_types = {"this": False, "ifs": True, "default": False}
2129
2130
2131class WhileBlock(Expression):
2132    arg_types = {"this": True, "body": True, "label": False}
2133
2134
2135class LoopBlock(Expression):
2136    arg_types = {"body": True, "label": False}
2137
2138
2139class RepeatBlock(Expression):
2140    arg_types = {"body": True, "until": True, "label": False}
2141
2142
2143class Leave(Expression):
2144    pass
2145
2146
2147class Iterate(Expression):
2148    pass
2149
2150
2151class EndStatement(Expression):
2152    arg_types = {}
2153
2154
2155# https://trino.io/docs/current/udf.html
2156class FunctionSpecification(Expression):
2157    arg_types = {
2158        "this": True,
2159        "characteristics": False,
2160        "properties": False,
2161        "expression": True,
2162    }
2163
2164
2165UNWRAPPED_QUERIES = (Select, SetOperation)
2166
2167
2168def union(
2169    *expressions: ExpOrStr,
2170    distinct: bool = True,
2171    dialect: DialectType = None,
2172    copy: bool = True,
2173    **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
2174) -> Union:
2175    """
2176    Initializes a syntax tree for the `UNION` operation.
2177
2178    Example:
2179        >>> union("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
2180        'SELECT * FROM foo UNION SELECT * FROM bla'
2181
2182    Args:
2183        expressions: the SQL code strings, corresponding to the `UNION`'s operands.
2184            If `Expr` instances are passed, they will be used as-is.
2185        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
2186        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2187        copy: whether to copy the expression.
2188        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2189
2190    Returns:
2191        The new Union instance.
2192    """
2193    assert len(expressions) >= 2, "At least two expressions are required by `union`."
2194    return _apply_set_operation(
2195        *expressions, set_operation=Union, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts
2196    )
2197
2198
2199def intersect(
2200    *expressions: ExpOrStr,
2201    distinct: bool = True,
2202    dialect: DialectType = None,
2203    copy: bool = True,
2204    **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
2205) -> Intersect:
2206    """
2207    Initializes a syntax tree for the `INTERSECT` operation.
2208
2209    Example:
2210        >>> intersect("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
2211        'SELECT * FROM foo INTERSECT SELECT * FROM bla'
2212
2213    Args:
2214        expressions: the SQL code strings, corresponding to the `INTERSECT`'s operands.
2215            If `Expr` instances are passed, they will be used as-is.
2216        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
2217        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2218        copy: whether to copy the expression.
2219        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2220
2221    Returns:
2222        The new Intersect instance.
2223    """
2224    assert len(expressions) >= 2, "At least two expressions are required by `intersect`."
2225    return _apply_set_operation(
2226        *expressions, set_operation=Intersect, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts
2227    )
2228
2229
2230def except_(
2231    *expressions: ExpOrStr,
2232    distinct: bool = True,
2233    dialect: DialectType = None,
2234    copy: bool = True,
2235    **opts: Unpack[ParserNoDialectArgs],
2236) -> Except:
2237    """
2238    Initializes a syntax tree for the `EXCEPT` operation.
2239
2240    Example:
2241        >>> except_("SELECT * FROM foo", "SELECT * FROM bla").sql()
2242        'SELECT * FROM foo EXCEPT SELECT * FROM bla'
2243
2244    Args:
2245        expressions: the SQL code strings, corresponding to the `EXCEPT`'s operands.
2246            If `Expr` instances are passed, they will be used as-is.
2247        distinct: set the DISTINCT flag if and only if this is true.
2248        dialect: the dialect used to parse the input expression.
2249        copy: whether to copy the expression.
2250        opts: other options to use to parse the input expressions.
2251
2252    Returns:
2253        The new Except instance.
2254    """
2255    assert len(expressions) >= 2, "At least two expressions are required by `except_`."
2256    return _apply_set_operation(
2257        *expressions, set_operation=Except, distinct=distinct, dialect=dialect, copy=copy, **opts
2258    )