sqlglot.dialects.tsql

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import datetime
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from functools import partial, reduce
   7
   8from sqlglot import exp, generator, parser, tokens, transforms
   9from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import (
  10    Dialect,
  11    NormalizationStrategy,
  12    any_value_to_max_sql,
  13    date_delta_sql,
  14    datestrtodate_sql,
  15    generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql,
  16    max_or_greatest,
  17    min_or_least,
  18    build_date_delta,
  19    rename_func,
  20    trim_sql,
  21    timestrtotime_sql,
  22)
  23from sqlglot.helper import seq_get
  24from sqlglot.parser import build_coalesce
  25from sqlglot.time import format_time
  26from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  27
  28if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  29    from sqlglot._typing import E
  30
  31FULL_FORMAT_TIME_MAPPING = {
  32    "weekday": "%A",
  33    "dw": "%A",
  34    "w": "%A",
  35    "month": "%B",
  36    "mm": "%B",
  37    "m": "%B",
  38}
  39
  40DATE_DELTA_INTERVAL = {
  41    "year": "year",
  42    "yyyy": "year",
  43    "yy": "year",
  44    "quarter": "quarter",
  45    "qq": "quarter",
  46    "q": "quarter",
  47    "month": "month",
  48    "mm": "month",
  49    "m": "month",
  50    "week": "week",
  51    "ww": "week",
  52    "wk": "week",
  53    "day": "day",
  54    "dd": "day",
  55    "d": "day",
  56}
  57
  58
  59DATE_FMT_RE = re.compile("([dD]{1,2})|([mM]{1,2})|([yY]{1,4})|([hH]{1,2})|([sS]{1,2})")
  60
  61# N = Numeric, C=Currency
  62TRANSPILE_SAFE_NUMBER_FMT = {"N", "C"}
  63
  64DEFAULT_START_DATE = datetime.date(1900, 1, 1)
  65
  66BIT_TYPES = {exp.EQ, exp.NEQ, exp.Is, exp.In, exp.Select, exp.Alias}
  67
  68# Unsupported options:
  69# - OPTIMIZE FOR ( @variable_name { UNKNOWN | = <literal_constant> } [ , ...n ] )
  70# - TABLE HINT
  71OPTIONS: parser.OPTIONS_TYPE = {
  72    **dict.fromkeys(
  73        (
  74            "DISABLE_OPTIMIZED_PLAN_FORCING",
  75            "FAST",
  76            "IGNORE_NONCLUSTERED_COLUMNSTORE_INDEX",
  77            "LABEL",
  78            "MAXDOP",
  79            "MAXRECURSION",
  80            "MAX_GRANT_PERCENT",
  81            "MIN_GRANT_PERCENT",
  82            "NO_PERFORMANCE_SPOOL",
  83            "QUERYTRACEON",
  84            "RECOMPILE",
  85        ),
  86        tuple(),
  87    ),
  88    "CONCAT": ("UNION",),
  89    "DISABLE": ("EXTERNALPUSHDOWN", "SCALEOUTEXECUTION"),
  90    "EXPAND": ("VIEWS",),
  91    "FORCE": ("EXTERNALPUSHDOWN", "ORDER", "SCALEOUTEXECUTION"),
  92    "HASH": ("GROUP", "JOIN", "UNION"),
  93    "KEEP": ("PLAN",),
  94    "KEEPFIXED": ("PLAN",),
  95    "LOOP": ("JOIN",),
  96    "MERGE": ("JOIN", "UNION"),
  97    "OPTIMIZE": (("FOR", "UNKNOWN"),),
  98    "ORDER": ("GROUP",),
  99    "PARAMETERIZATION": ("FORCED", "SIMPLE"),
 100    "ROBUST": ("PLAN",),
 101    "USE": ("PLAN",),
 102}
 103
 104OPTIONS_THAT_REQUIRE_EQUAL = ("MAX_GRANT_PERCENT", "MIN_GRANT_PERCENT", "LABEL")
 105
 106
 107def _build_formatted_time(
 108    exp_class: t.Type[E], full_format_mapping: t.Optional[bool] = None
 109) -> t.Callable[[t.List], E]:
 110    def _builder(args: t.List) -> E:
 111        assert len(args) == 2
 112
 113        return exp_class(
 114            this=exp.cast(args[1], exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME),
 115            format=exp.Literal.string(
 116                format_time(
 117                    args[0].name.lower(),
 118                    (
 119                        {**TSQL.TIME_MAPPING, **FULL_FORMAT_TIME_MAPPING}
 120                        if full_format_mapping
 121                        else TSQL.TIME_MAPPING
 122                    ),
 123                )
 124            ),
 125        )
 126
 127    return _builder
 128
 129
 130def _build_format(args: t.List) -> exp.NumberToStr | exp.TimeToStr:
 131    this = seq_get(args, 0)
 132    fmt = seq_get(args, 1)
 133    culture = seq_get(args, 2)
 134
 135    number_fmt = fmt and (fmt.name in TRANSPILE_SAFE_NUMBER_FMT or not DATE_FMT_RE.search(fmt.name))
 136
 137    if number_fmt:
 138        return exp.NumberToStr(this=this, format=fmt, culture=culture)
 139
 140    if fmt:
 141        fmt = exp.Literal.string(
 142            format_time(fmt.name, TSQL.FORMAT_TIME_MAPPING)
 143            if len(fmt.name) == 1
 144            else format_time(fmt.name, TSQL.TIME_MAPPING)
 145        )
 146
 147    return exp.TimeToStr(this=this, format=fmt, culture=culture)
 148
 149
 150def _build_eomonth(args: t.List) -> exp.LastDay:
 151    date = exp.TsOrDsToDate(this=seq_get(args, 0))
 152    month_lag = seq_get(args, 1)
 153
 154    if month_lag is None:
 155        this: exp.Expression = date
 156    else:
 157        unit = DATE_DELTA_INTERVAL.get("month")
 158        this = exp.DateAdd(this=date, expression=month_lag, unit=unit and exp.var(unit))
 159
 160    return exp.LastDay(this=this)
 161
 162
 163def _build_hashbytes(args: t.List) -> exp.Expression:
 164    kind, data = args
 165    kind = kind.name.upper() if kind.is_string else ""
 166
 167    if kind == "MD5":
 168        args.pop(0)
 169        return exp.MD5(this=data)
 170    if kind in ("SHA", "SHA1"):
 171        args.pop(0)
 172        return exp.SHA(this=data)
 173    if kind == "SHA2_256":
 174        return exp.SHA2(this=data, length=exp.Literal.number(256))
 175    if kind == "SHA2_512":
 176        return exp.SHA2(this=data, length=exp.Literal.number(512))
 177
 178    return exp.func("HASHBYTES", *args)
 179
 180
 181DATEPART_ONLY_FORMATS = {"DW", "HOUR", "QUARTER"}
 182
 183
 184def _format_sql(self: TSQL.Generator, expression: exp.NumberToStr | exp.TimeToStr) -> str:
 185    fmt = expression.args["format"]
 186
 187    if not isinstance(expression, exp.NumberToStr):
 188        if fmt.is_string:
 189            mapped_fmt = format_time(fmt.name, TSQL.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING)
 190
 191            name = (mapped_fmt or "").upper()
 192            if name in DATEPART_ONLY_FORMATS:
 193                return self.func("DATEPART", name, expression.this)
 194
 195            fmt_sql = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(mapped_fmt))
 196        else:
 197            fmt_sql = self.format_time(expression) or self.sql(fmt)
 198    else:
 199        fmt_sql = self.sql(fmt)
 200
 201    return self.func("FORMAT", expression.this, fmt_sql, expression.args.get("culture"))
 202
 203
 204def _string_agg_sql(self: TSQL.Generator, expression: exp.GroupConcat) -> str:
 205    this = expression.this
 206    distinct = expression.find(exp.Distinct)
 207    if distinct:
 208        # exp.Distinct can appear below an exp.Order or an exp.GroupConcat expression
 209        self.unsupported("T-SQL STRING_AGG doesn't support DISTINCT.")
 210        this = distinct.pop().expressions[0]
 211
 212    order = ""
 213    if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Order):
 214        if expression.this.this:
 215            this = expression.this.this.pop()
 216        # Order has a leading space
 217        order = f" WITHIN GROUP ({self.sql(expression.this)[1:]})"
 218
 219    separator = expression.args.get("separator") or exp.Literal.string(",")
 220    return f"STRING_AGG({self.format_args(this, separator)}){order}"
 221
 222
 223def _build_date_delta(
 224    exp_class: t.Type[E], unit_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None
 225) -> t.Callable[[t.List], E]:
 226    def _builder(args: t.List) -> E:
 227        unit = seq_get(args, 0)
 228        if unit and unit_mapping:
 229            unit = exp.var(unit_mapping.get(unit.name.lower(), unit.name))
 230
 231        start_date = seq_get(args, 1)
 232        if start_date and start_date.is_number:
 233            # Numeric types are valid DATETIME values
 234            if start_date.is_int:
 235                adds = DEFAULT_START_DATE + datetime.timedelta(days=int(start_date.this))
 236                start_date = exp.Literal.string(adds.strftime("%F"))
 237            else:
 238                # We currently don't handle float values, i.e. they're not converted to equivalent DATETIMEs.
 239                # This is not a problem when generating T-SQL code, it is when transpiling to other dialects.
 240                return exp_class(this=seq_get(args, 2), expression=start_date, unit=unit)
 241
 242        return exp_class(
 243            this=exp.TimeStrToTime(this=seq_get(args, 2)),
 244            expression=exp.TimeStrToTime(this=start_date),
 245            unit=unit,
 246        )
 247
 248    return _builder
 249
 250
 251def qualify_derived_table_outputs(expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 252    """Ensures all (unnamed) output columns are aliased for CTEs and Subqueries."""
 253    alias = expression.args.get("alias")
 254
 255    if (
 256        isinstance(expression, (exp.CTE, exp.Subquery))
 257        and isinstance(alias, exp.TableAlias)
 258        and not alias.columns
 259    ):
 260        from sqlglot.optimizer.qualify_columns import qualify_outputs
 261
 262        # We keep track of the unaliased column projection indexes instead of the expressions
 263        # themselves, because the latter are going to be replaced by new nodes when the aliases
 264        # are added and hence we won't be able to reach these newly added Alias parents
 265        query = expression.this
 266        unaliased_column_indexes = (
 267            i for i, c in enumerate(query.selects) if isinstance(c, exp.Column) and not c.alias
 268        )
 269
 270        qualify_outputs(query)
 271
 272        # Preserve the quoting information of columns for newly added Alias nodes
 273        query_selects = query.selects
 274        for select_index in unaliased_column_indexes:
 275            alias = query_selects[select_index]
 276            column = alias.this
 277            if isinstance(column.this, exp.Identifier):
 278                alias.args["alias"].set("quoted", column.this.quoted)
 279
 280    return expression
 281
 282
 283# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/datetimefromparts-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16#syntax
 284def _build_datetimefromparts(args: t.List) -> exp.TimestampFromParts:
 285    return exp.TimestampFromParts(
 286        year=seq_get(args, 0),
 287        month=seq_get(args, 1),
 288        day=seq_get(args, 2),
 289        hour=seq_get(args, 3),
 290        min=seq_get(args, 4),
 291        sec=seq_get(args, 5),
 292        milli=seq_get(args, 6),
 293    )
 294
 295
 296# https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/timefromparts-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16#syntax
 297def _build_timefromparts(args: t.List) -> exp.TimeFromParts:
 298    return exp.TimeFromParts(
 299        hour=seq_get(args, 0),
 300        min=seq_get(args, 1),
 301        sec=seq_get(args, 2),
 302        fractions=seq_get(args, 3),
 303        precision=seq_get(args, 4),
 304    )
 305
 306
 307def _build_with_arg_as_text(
 308    klass: t.Type[exp.Expression],
 309) -> t.Callable[[t.List[exp.Expression]], exp.Expression]:
 310    def _parse(args: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> exp.Expression:
 311        this = seq_get(args, 0)
 312
 313        if this and not this.is_string:
 314            this = exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT)
 315
 316        expression = seq_get(args, 1)
 317        kwargs = {"this": this}
 318
 319        if expression:
 320            kwargs["expression"] = expression
 321
 322        return klass(**kwargs)
 323
 324    return _parse
 325
 326
 327def _build_json_query(args: t.List, dialect: Dialect) -> exp.JSONExtract:
 328    if len(args) == 1:
 329        # The default value for path is '$'. As a result, if you don't provide a
 330        # value for path, JSON_QUERY returns the input expression.
 331        args.append(exp.Literal.string("$"))
 332
 333    return parser.build_extract_json_with_path(exp.JSONExtract)(args, dialect)
 334
 335
 336def _json_extract_sql(
 337    self: TSQL.Generator, expression: exp.JSONExtract | exp.JSONExtractScalar
 338) -> str:
 339    json_query = self.func("JSON_QUERY", expression.this, expression.expression)
 340    json_value = self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, expression.expression)
 341    return self.func("ISNULL", json_query, json_value)
 342
 343
 344def _timestrtotime_sql(self: TSQL.Generator, expression: exp.TimeStrToTime):
 345    sql = timestrtotime_sql(self, expression)
 346    if expression.args.get("zone"):
 347        # If there is a timezone, produce an expression like:
 348        # CAST('2020-01-01 12:13:14-08:00' AS DATETIMEOFFSET) AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'
 349        # If you dont have AT TIME ZONE 'UTC', wrapping that expression in another cast back to DATETIME2 just drops the timezone information
 350        return self.sql(exp.AtTimeZone(this=sql, zone=exp.Literal.string("UTC")))
 351    return sql
 352
 353
 354class TSQL(Dialect):
 355    SUPPORTS_SEMI_ANTI_JOIN = False
 356    LOG_BASE_FIRST = False
 357    TYPED_DIVISION = True
 358    CONCAT_COALESCE = True
 359    NORMALIZATION_STRATEGY = NormalizationStrategy.CASE_INSENSITIVE
 360
 361    TIME_FORMAT = "'yyyy-mm-dd hh:mm:ss'"
 362
 363    TIME_MAPPING = {
 364        "year": "%Y",
 365        "dayofyear": "%j",
 366        "day": "%d",
 367        "dy": "%d",
 368        "y": "%Y",
 369        "week": "%W",
 370        "ww": "%W",
 371        "wk": "%W",
 372        "hour": "%h",
 373        "hh": "%I",
 374        "minute": "%M",
 375        "mi": "%M",
 376        "n": "%M",
 377        "second": "%S",
 378        "ss": "%S",
 379        "s": "%-S",
 380        "millisecond": "%f",
 381        "ms": "%f",
 382        "weekday": "%W",
 383        "dw": "%W",
 384        "month": "%m",
 385        "mm": "%M",
 386        "m": "%-M",
 387        "Y": "%Y",
 388        "YYYY": "%Y",
 389        "YY": "%y",
 390        "MMMM": "%B",
 391        "MMM": "%b",
 392        "MM": "%m",
 393        "M": "%-m",
 394        "dddd": "%A",
 395        "dd": "%d",
 396        "d": "%-d",
 397        "HH": "%H",
 398        "H": "%-H",
 399        "h": "%-I",
 400        "ffffff": "%f",
 401        "yyyy": "%Y",
 402        "yy": "%y",
 403    }
 404
 405    CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING = {
 406        "0": "%b %d %Y %-I:%M%p",
 407        "1": "%m/%d/%y",
 408        "2": "%y.%m.%d",
 409        "3": "%d/%m/%y",
 410        "4": "%d.%m.%y",
 411        "5": "%d-%m-%y",
 412        "6": "%d %b %y",
 413        "7": "%b %d, %y",
 414        "8": "%H:%M:%S",
 415        "9": "%b %d %Y %-I:%M:%S:%f%p",
 416        "10": "mm-dd-yy",
 417        "11": "yy/mm/dd",
 418        "12": "yymmdd",
 419        "13": "%d %b %Y %H:%M:ss:%f",
 420        "14": "%H:%M:%S:%f",
 421        "20": "%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S",
 422        "21": "%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S.%f",
 423        "22": "%m/%d/%y %-I:%M:%S %p",
 424        "23": "%Y-%m-%d",
 425        "24": "%H:%M:%S",
 426        "25": "%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S.%f",
 427        "100": "%b %d %Y %-I:%M%p",
 428        "101": "%m/%d/%Y",
 429        "102": "%Y.%m.%d",
 430        "103": "%d/%m/%Y",
 431        "104": "%d.%m.%Y",
 432        "105": "%d-%m-%Y",
 433        "106": "%d %b %Y",
 434        "107": "%b %d, %Y",
 435        "108": "%H:%M:%S",
 436        "109": "%b %d %Y %-I:%M:%S:%f%p",
 437        "110": "%m-%d-%Y",
 438        "111": "%Y/%m/%d",
 439        "112": "%Y%m%d",
 440        "113": "%d %b %Y %H:%M:%S:%f",
 441        "114": "%H:%M:%S:%f",
 442        "120": "%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S",
 443        "121": "%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S.%f",
 444    }
 445
 446    FORMAT_TIME_MAPPING = {
 447        "y": "%B %Y",
 448        "d": "%m/%d/%Y",
 449        "H": "%-H",
 450        "h": "%-I",
 451        "s": "%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S",
 452        "D": "%A,%B,%Y",
 453        "f": "%A,%B,%Y %-I:%M %p",
 454        "F": "%A,%B,%Y %-I:%M:%S %p",
 455        "g": "%m/%d/%Y %-I:%M %p",
 456        "G": "%m/%d/%Y %-I:%M:%S %p",
 457        "M": "%B %-d",
 458        "m": "%B %-d",
 459        "O": "%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%S",
 460        "u": "%Y-%M-%D %H:%M:%S%z",
 461        "U": "%A, %B %D, %Y %H:%M:%S%z",
 462        "T": "%-I:%M:%S %p",
 463        "t": "%-I:%M",
 464        "Y": "%a %Y",
 465    }
 466
 467    class Tokenizer(tokens.Tokenizer):
 468        IDENTIFIERS = [("[", "]"), '"']
 469        QUOTES = ["'", '"']
 470        HEX_STRINGS = [("0x", ""), ("0X", "")]
 471        VAR_SINGLE_TOKENS = {"@", "$", "#"}
 472
 473        KEYWORDS = {
 474            **tokens.Tokenizer.KEYWORDS,
 475            "CLUSTERED INDEX": TokenType.INDEX,
 476            "DATETIME2": TokenType.DATETIME,
 477            "DATETIMEOFFSET": TokenType.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 478            "DECLARE": TokenType.DECLARE,
 479            "EXEC": TokenType.COMMAND,
 480            "FOR SYSTEM_TIME": TokenType.TIMESTAMP_SNAPSHOT,
 481            "IMAGE": TokenType.IMAGE,
 482            "MONEY": TokenType.MONEY,
 483            "NONCLUSTERED INDEX": TokenType.INDEX,
 484            "NTEXT": TokenType.TEXT,
 485            "OPTION": TokenType.OPTION,
 486            "OUTPUT": TokenType.RETURNING,
 487            "PRINT": TokenType.COMMAND,
 488            "PROC": TokenType.PROCEDURE,
 489            "REAL": TokenType.FLOAT,
 490            "ROWVERSION": TokenType.ROWVERSION,
 491            "SMALLDATETIME": TokenType.DATETIME,
 492            "SMALLMONEY": TokenType.SMALLMONEY,
 493            "SQL_VARIANT": TokenType.VARIANT,
 494            "SYSTEM_USER": TokenType.CURRENT_USER,
 495            "TOP": TokenType.TOP,
 496            "TIMESTAMP": TokenType.ROWVERSION,
 497            "TINYINT": TokenType.UTINYINT,
 498            "UNIQUEIDENTIFIER": TokenType.UNIQUEIDENTIFIER,
 499            "UPDATE STATISTICS": TokenType.COMMAND,
 500            "XML": TokenType.XML,
 501        }
 502        KEYWORDS.pop("/*+")
 503
 504        COMMANDS = {*tokens.Tokenizer.COMMANDS, TokenType.END}
 505
 506    class Parser(parser.Parser):
 507        SET_REQUIRES_ASSIGNMENT_DELIMITER = False
 508        LOG_DEFAULTS_TO_LN = True
 509        ALTER_TABLE_ADD_REQUIRED_FOR_EACH_COLUMN = False
 510        STRING_ALIASES = True
 511        NO_PAREN_IF_COMMANDS = False
 512
 513        QUERY_MODIFIER_PARSERS = {
 514            **parser.Parser.QUERY_MODIFIER_PARSERS,
 515            TokenType.OPTION: lambda self: ("options", self._parse_options()),
 516        }
 517
 518        FUNCTIONS = {
 519            **parser.Parser.FUNCTIONS,
 520            "CHARINDEX": lambda args: exp.StrPosition(
 521                this=seq_get(args, 1),
 522                substr=seq_get(args, 0),
 523                position=seq_get(args, 2),
 524            ),
 525            "COUNT": lambda args: exp.Count(
 526                this=seq_get(args, 0), expressions=args[1:], big_int=False
 527            ),
 528            "COUNT_BIG": lambda args: exp.Count(
 529                this=seq_get(args, 0), expressions=args[1:], big_int=True
 530            ),
 531            "DATEADD": build_date_delta(exp.DateAdd, unit_mapping=DATE_DELTA_INTERVAL),
 532            "DATEDIFF": _build_date_delta(exp.DateDiff, unit_mapping=DATE_DELTA_INTERVAL),
 533            "DATENAME": _build_formatted_time(exp.TimeToStr, full_format_mapping=True),
 534            "DATEPART": _build_formatted_time(exp.TimeToStr),
 535            "DATETIMEFROMPARTS": _build_datetimefromparts,
 536            "EOMONTH": _build_eomonth,
 537            "FORMAT": _build_format,
 538            "GETDATE": exp.CurrentTimestamp.from_arg_list,
 539            "HASHBYTES": _build_hashbytes,
 540            "ISNULL": build_coalesce,
 541            "JSON_QUERY": _build_json_query,
 542            "JSON_VALUE": parser.build_extract_json_with_path(exp.JSONExtractScalar),
 543            "LEN": _build_with_arg_as_text(exp.Length),
 544            "LEFT": _build_with_arg_as_text(exp.Left),
 545            "RIGHT": _build_with_arg_as_text(exp.Right),
 546            "REPLICATE": exp.Repeat.from_arg_list,
 547            "SQUARE": lambda args: exp.Pow(this=seq_get(args, 0), expression=exp.Literal.number(2)),
 548            "SYSDATETIME": exp.CurrentTimestamp.from_arg_list,
 549            "SUSER_NAME": exp.CurrentUser.from_arg_list,
 550            "SUSER_SNAME": exp.CurrentUser.from_arg_list,
 551            "SYSTEM_USER": exp.CurrentUser.from_arg_list,
 552            "TIMEFROMPARTS": _build_timefromparts,
 553        }
 554
 555        JOIN_HINTS = {"LOOP", "HASH", "MERGE", "REMOTE"}
 556
 557        RETURNS_TABLE_TOKENS = parser.Parser.ID_VAR_TOKENS - {
 558            TokenType.TABLE,
 559            *parser.Parser.TYPE_TOKENS,
 560        }
 561
 562        STATEMENT_PARSERS = {
 563            **parser.Parser.STATEMENT_PARSERS,
 564            TokenType.DECLARE: lambda self: self._parse_declare(),
 565        }
 566
 567        RANGE_PARSERS = {
 568            **parser.Parser.RANGE_PARSERS,
 569            TokenType.DCOLON: lambda self, this: self.expression(
 570                exp.ScopeResolution,
 571                this=this,
 572                expression=self._parse_function() or self._parse_var(any_token=True),
 573            ),
 574        }
 575
 576        # The DCOLON (::) operator serves as a scope resolution (exp.ScopeResolution) operator in T-SQL
 577        COLUMN_OPERATORS = {
 578            **parser.Parser.COLUMN_OPERATORS,
 579            TokenType.DCOLON: lambda self, this, to: self.expression(exp.Cast, this=this, to=to)
 580            if isinstance(to, exp.DataType) and to.this != exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED
 581            else self.expression(exp.ScopeResolution, this=this, expression=to),
 582        }
 583
 584        def _parse_dcolon(self) -> t.Optional[exp.Expression]:
 585            # We want to use _parse_types() if the first token after :: is a known type,
 586            # otherwise we could parse something like x::varchar(max) into a function
 587            if self._match_set(self.TYPE_TOKENS, advance=False):
 588                return self._parse_types()
 589
 590            return self._parse_function() or self._parse_types()
 591
 592        def _parse_options(self) -> t.Optional[t.List[exp.Expression]]:
 593            if not self._match(TokenType.OPTION):
 594                return None
 595
 596            def _parse_option() -> t.Optional[exp.Expression]:
 597                option = self._parse_var_from_options(OPTIONS)
 598                if not option:
 599                    return None
 600
 601                self._match(TokenType.EQ)
 602                return self.expression(
 603                    exp.QueryOption, this=option, expression=self._parse_primary_or_var()
 604                )
 605
 606            return self._parse_wrapped_csv(_parse_option)
 607
 608        def _parse_projections(self) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
 609            """
 610            T-SQL supports the syntax alias = expression in the SELECT's projection list,
 611            so we transform all parsed Selects to convert their EQ projections into Aliases.
 612
 613            See: https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/queries/select-clause-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16#syntax
 614            """
 615            return [
 616                (
 617                    exp.alias_(projection.expression, projection.this.this, copy=False)
 618                    if isinstance(projection, exp.EQ) and isinstance(projection.this, exp.Column)
 619                    else projection
 620                )
 621                for projection in super()._parse_projections()
 622            ]
 623
 624        def _parse_commit_or_rollback(self) -> exp.Commit | exp.Rollback:
 625            """Applies to SQL Server and Azure SQL Database
 626            COMMIT [ { TRAN | TRANSACTION }
 627                [ transaction_name | @tran_name_variable ] ]
 628                [ WITH ( DELAYED_DURABILITY = { OFF | ON } ) ]
 629
 630            ROLLBACK { TRAN | TRANSACTION }
 631                [ transaction_name | @tran_name_variable
 632                | savepoint_name | @savepoint_variable ]
 633            """
 634            rollback = self._prev.token_type == TokenType.ROLLBACK
 635
 636            self._match_texts(("TRAN", "TRANSACTION"))
 637            this = self._parse_id_var()
 638
 639            if rollback:
 640                return self.expression(exp.Rollback, this=this)
 641
 642            durability = None
 643            if self._match_pair(TokenType.WITH, TokenType.L_PAREN):
 644                self._match_text_seq("DELAYED_DURABILITY")
 645                self._match(TokenType.EQ)
 646
 647                if self._match_text_seq("OFF"):
 648                    durability = False
 649                else:
 650                    self._match(TokenType.ON)
 651                    durability = True
 652
 653                self._match_r_paren()
 654
 655            return self.expression(exp.Commit, this=this, durability=durability)
 656
 657        def _parse_transaction(self) -> exp.Transaction | exp.Command:
 658            """Applies to SQL Server and Azure SQL Database
 659            BEGIN { TRAN | TRANSACTION }
 660            [ { transaction_name | @tran_name_variable }
 661            [ WITH MARK [ 'description' ] ]
 662            ]
 663            """
 664            if self._match_texts(("TRAN", "TRANSACTION")):
 665                transaction = self.expression(exp.Transaction, this=self._parse_id_var())
 666                if self._match_text_seq("WITH", "MARK"):
 667                    transaction.set("mark", self._parse_string())
 668
 669                return transaction
 670
 671            return self._parse_as_command(self._prev)
 672
 673        def _parse_returns(self) -> exp.ReturnsProperty:
 674            table = self._parse_id_var(any_token=False, tokens=self.RETURNS_TABLE_TOKENS)
 675            returns = super()._parse_returns()
 676            returns.set("table", table)
 677            return returns
 678
 679        def _parse_convert(
 680            self, strict: bool, safe: t.Optional[bool] = None
 681        ) -> t.Optional[exp.Expression]:
 682            this = self._parse_types()
 683            self._match(TokenType.COMMA)
 684            args = [this, *self._parse_csv(self._parse_assignment)]
 685            convert = exp.Convert.from_arg_list(args)
 686            convert.set("safe", safe)
 687            convert.set("strict", strict)
 688            return convert
 689
 690        def _parse_user_defined_function(
 691            self, kind: t.Optional[TokenType] = None
 692        ) -> t.Optional[exp.Expression]:
 693            this = super()._parse_user_defined_function(kind=kind)
 694
 695            if (
 696                kind == TokenType.FUNCTION
 697                or isinstance(this, exp.UserDefinedFunction)
 698                or self._match(TokenType.ALIAS, advance=False)
 699            ):
 700                return this
 701
 702            expressions = self._parse_csv(self._parse_function_parameter)
 703            return self.expression(exp.UserDefinedFunction, this=this, expressions=expressions)
 704
 705        def _parse_id_var(
 706            self,
 707            any_token: bool = True,
 708            tokens: t.Optional[t.Collection[TokenType]] = None,
 709        ) -> t.Optional[exp.Expression]:
 710            is_temporary = self._match(TokenType.HASH)
 711            is_global = is_temporary and self._match(TokenType.HASH)
 712
 713            this = super()._parse_id_var(any_token=any_token, tokens=tokens)
 714            if this:
 715                if is_global:
 716                    this.set("global", True)
 717                elif is_temporary:
 718                    this.set("temporary", True)
 719
 720            return this
 721
 722        def _parse_create(self) -> exp.Create | exp.Command:
 723            create = super()._parse_create()
 724
 725            if isinstance(create, exp.Create):
 726                table = create.this.this if isinstance(create.this, exp.Schema) else create.this
 727                if isinstance(table, exp.Table) and table.this.args.get("temporary"):
 728                    if not create.args.get("properties"):
 729                        create.set("properties", exp.Properties(expressions=[]))
 730
 731                    create.args["properties"].append("expressions", exp.TemporaryProperty())
 732
 733            return create
 734
 735        def _parse_if(self) -> t.Optional[exp.Expression]:
 736            index = self._index
 737
 738            if self._match_text_seq("OBJECT_ID"):
 739                self._parse_wrapped_csv(self._parse_string)
 740                if self._match_text_seq("IS", "NOT", "NULL") and self._match(TokenType.DROP):
 741                    return self._parse_drop(exists=True)
 742                self._retreat(index)
 743
 744            return super()._parse_if()
 745
 746        def _parse_unique(self) -> exp.UniqueColumnConstraint:
 747            if self._match_texts(("CLUSTERED", "NONCLUSTERED")):
 748                this = self.CONSTRAINT_PARSERS[self._prev.text.upper()](self)
 749            else:
 750                this = self._parse_schema(self._parse_id_var(any_token=False))
 751
 752            return self.expression(exp.UniqueColumnConstraint, this=this)
 753
 754        def _parse_partition(self) -> t.Optional[exp.Partition]:
 755            if not self._match_text_seq("WITH", "(", "PARTITIONS"):
 756                return None
 757
 758            def parse_range():
 759                low = self._parse_bitwise()
 760                high = self._parse_bitwise() if self._match_text_seq("TO") else None
 761
 762                return (
 763                    self.expression(exp.PartitionRange, this=low, expression=high) if high else low
 764                )
 765
 766            partition = self.expression(
 767                exp.Partition, expressions=self._parse_wrapped_csv(parse_range)
 768            )
 769
 770            self._match_r_paren()
 771
 772            return partition
 773
 774        def _parse_declare(self) -> exp.Declare | exp.Command:
 775            index = self._index
 776            expressions = self._try_parse(partial(self._parse_csv, self._parse_declareitem))
 777
 778            if not expressions or self._curr:
 779                self._retreat(index)
 780                return self._parse_as_command(self._prev)
 781
 782            return self.expression(exp.Declare, expressions=expressions)
 783
 784        def _parse_declareitem(self) -> t.Optional[exp.DeclareItem]:
 785            var = self._parse_id_var()
 786            if not var:
 787                return None
 788
 789            value = None
 790            self._match(TokenType.ALIAS)
 791            if self._match(TokenType.TABLE):
 792                data_type = self._parse_schema()
 793            else:
 794                data_type = self._parse_types()
 795                if self._match(TokenType.EQ):
 796                    value = self._parse_bitwise()
 797
 798            return self.expression(exp.DeclareItem, this=var, kind=data_type, default=value)
 799
 800    class Generator(generator.Generator):
 801        LIMIT_IS_TOP = True
 802        QUERY_HINTS = False
 803        RETURNING_END = False
 804        NVL2_SUPPORTED = False
 805        ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = False
 806        LIMIT_FETCH = "FETCH"
 807        COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = False
 808        CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = False
 809        ENSURE_BOOLS = True
 810        NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = None
 811        SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = False
 812        TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "REPEATABLE"
 813        SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = True
 814        JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = False
 815        SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = False
 816        SET_OP_MODIFIERS = False
 817        COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = True
 818        PARSE_JSON_NAME = None
 819        EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = False
 820
 821        EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES = {
 822            exp.Create,
 823            exp.Delete,
 824            exp.Insert,
 825            exp.Intersect,
 826            exp.Except,
 827            exp.Merge,
 828            exp.Select,
 829            exp.Subquery,
 830            exp.Union,
 831            exp.Update,
 832        }
 833
 834        SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = {
 835            exp.JSONPathKey,
 836            exp.JSONPathRoot,
 837            exp.JSONPathSubscript,
 838        }
 839
 840        TYPE_MAPPING = {
 841            **generator.Generator.TYPE_MAPPING,
 842            exp.DataType.Type.BOOLEAN: "BIT",
 843            exp.DataType.Type.DECIMAL: "NUMERIC",
 844            exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME: "DATETIME2",
 845            exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE: "FLOAT",
 846            exp.DataType.Type.INT: "INTEGER",
 847            exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "ROWVERSION",
 848            exp.DataType.Type.TEXT: "VARCHAR(MAX)",
 849            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP: "DATETIME2",
 850            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ: "DATETIMEOFFSET",
 851            exp.DataType.Type.UTINYINT: "TINYINT",
 852            exp.DataType.Type.VARIANT: "SQL_VARIANT",
 853        }
 854
 855        TYPE_MAPPING.pop(exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR)
 856        TYPE_MAPPING.pop(exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR)
 857
 858        TRANSFORMS = {
 859            **generator.Generator.TRANSFORMS,
 860            exp.AnyValue: any_value_to_max_sql,
 861            exp.ArrayToString: rename_func("STRING_AGG"),
 862            exp.AutoIncrementColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "IDENTITY",
 863            exp.DateAdd: date_delta_sql("DATEADD"),
 864            exp.DateDiff: date_delta_sql("DATEDIFF"),
 865            exp.CTE: transforms.preprocess([qualify_derived_table_outputs]),
 866            exp.CurrentDate: rename_func("GETDATE"),
 867            exp.CurrentTimestamp: rename_func("GETDATE"),
 868            exp.DateStrToDate: datestrtodate_sql,
 869            exp.Extract: rename_func("DATEPART"),
 870            exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint: generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql,
 871            exp.GroupConcat: _string_agg_sql,
 872            exp.If: rename_func("IIF"),
 873            exp.JSONExtract: _json_extract_sql,
 874            exp.JSONExtractScalar: _json_extract_sql,
 875            exp.LastDay: lambda self, e: self.func("EOMONTH", e.this),
 876            exp.Max: max_or_greatest,
 877            exp.MD5: lambda self, e: self.func("HASHBYTES", exp.Literal.string("MD5"), e.this),
 878            exp.Min: min_or_least,
 879            exp.NumberToStr: _format_sql,
 880            exp.Repeat: rename_func("REPLICATE"),
 881            exp.Select: transforms.preprocess(
 882                [
 883                    transforms.eliminate_distinct_on,
 884                    transforms.eliminate_semi_and_anti_joins,
 885                    transforms.eliminate_qualify,
 886                    transforms.unnest_generate_date_array_using_recursive_cte,
 887                ]
 888            ),
 889            exp.Stddev: rename_func("STDEV"),
 890            exp.StrPosition: lambda self, e: self.func(
 891                "CHARINDEX", e.args.get("substr"), e.this, e.args.get("position")
 892            ),
 893            exp.Subquery: transforms.preprocess([qualify_derived_table_outputs]),
 894            exp.SHA: lambda self, e: self.func("HASHBYTES", exp.Literal.string("SHA1"), e.this),
 895            exp.SHA2: lambda self, e: self.func(
 896                "HASHBYTES", exp.Literal.string(f"SHA2_{e.args.get('length', 256)}"), e.this
 897            ),
 898            exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: "",
 899            exp.TimeStrToTime: _timestrtotime_sql,
 900            exp.TimeToStr: _format_sql,
 901            exp.Trim: trim_sql,
 902            exp.TsOrDsAdd: date_delta_sql("DATEADD", cast=True),
 903            exp.TsOrDsDiff: date_delta_sql("DATEDIFF"),
 904        }
 905
 906        TRANSFORMS.pop(exp.ReturnsProperty)
 907
 908        PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 909            **generator.Generator.PROPERTIES_LOCATION,
 910            exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED,
 911        }
 912
 913        def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
 914            return f"{scope_name}::{rhs}"
 915
 916        def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
 917            if expression.args.get("offset"):
 918                if not expression.args.get("order"):
 919                    # ORDER BY is required in order to use OFFSET in a query, so we use
 920                    # a noop order by, since we don't really care about the order.
 921                    # See: https://www.microsoftpressstore.com/articles/article.aspx?p=2314819
 922                    expression.order_by(exp.select(exp.null()).subquery(), copy=False)
 923
 924                limit = expression.args.get("limit")
 925                if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
 926                    # TOP and OFFSET can't be combined, we need use FETCH instead of TOP
 927                    # we replace here because otherwise TOP would be generated in select_sql
 928                    limit.replace(exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression))
 929
 930            return super().select_sql(expression)
 931
 932        def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
 933            name = "TRY_CONVERT" if expression.args.get("safe") else "CONVERT"
 934            return self.func(
 935                name, expression.this, expression.expression, expression.args.get("style")
 936            )
 937
 938        def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
 939            option = self.sql(expression, "this")
 940            value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 941            if value:
 942                optional_equal_sign = "= " if option in OPTIONS_THAT_REQUIRE_EQUAL else ""
 943                return f"{option} {optional_equal_sign}{value}"
 944            return option
 945
 946        def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
 947            cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
 948            if cross_apply is True:
 949                return "CROSS APPLY"
 950            if cross_apply is False:
 951                return "OUTER APPLY"
 952
 953            # TODO: perhaps we can check if the parent is a Join and transpile it appropriately
 954            self.unsupported("LATERAL clause is not supported.")
 955            return "LATERAL"
 956
 957        def timefromparts_sql(self, expression: exp.TimeFromParts) -> str:
 958            nano = expression.args.get("nano")
 959            if nano is not None:
 960                nano.pop()
 961                self.unsupported("Specifying nanoseconds is not supported in TIMEFROMPARTS.")
 962
 963            if expression.args.get("fractions") is None:
 964                expression.set("fractions", exp.Literal.number(0))
 965            if expression.args.get("precision") is None:
 966                expression.set("precision", exp.Literal.number(0))
 967
 968            return rename_func("TIMEFROMPARTS")(self, expression)
 969
 970        def timestampfromparts_sql(self, expression: exp.TimestampFromParts) -> str:
 971            zone = expression.args.get("zone")
 972            if zone is not None:
 973                zone.pop()
 974                self.unsupported("Time zone is not supported in DATETIMEFROMPARTS.")
 975
 976            nano = expression.args.get("nano")
 977            if nano is not None:
 978                nano.pop()
 979                self.unsupported("Specifying nanoseconds is not supported in DATETIMEFROMPARTS.")
 980
 981            if expression.args.get("milli") is None:
 982                expression.set("milli", exp.Literal.number(0))
 983
 984            return rename_func("DATETIMEFROMPARTS")(self, expression)
 985
 986        def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
 987            this = expression.this
 988            if isinstance(this, exp.EQ) and not isinstance(this.left, exp.Parameter):
 989                # T-SQL does not use '=' in SET command, except when the LHS is a variable.
 990                return f"{self.sql(this.left)} {self.sql(this.right)}"
 991
 992            return super().setitem_sql(expression)
 993
 994        def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
 995            if type(expression.parent) in BIT_TYPES or isinstance(
 996                expression.find_ancestor(exp.Values, exp.Select), exp.Values
 997            ):
 998                return "1" if expression.this else "0"
 999
1000            return "(1 = 1)" if expression.this else "(1 = 0)"
1001
1002        def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
1003            if isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
1004                return self.binary(expression, "=")
1005            return self.binary(expression, "IS")
1006
1007        def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1008            sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1009            properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1010
1011            if sql[:1] != "#" and any(
1012                isinstance(prop, exp.TemporaryProperty)
1013                for prop in (properties.expressions if properties else [])
1014            ):
1015                sql = f"[#{sql[1:]}" if sql.startswith("[") else f"#{sql}"
1016
1017            return sql
1018
1019        def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1020            kind = expression.kind
1021            exists = expression.args.pop("exists", None)
1022
1023            like_property = expression.find(exp.LikeProperty)
1024            if like_property:
1025                ctas_expression = like_property.this
1026            else:
1027                ctas_expression = expression.expression
1028
1029            if kind == "VIEW":
1030                expression.this.set("catalog", None)
1031                with_ = expression.args.get("with")
1032                if ctas_expression and with_:
1033                    # We've already preprocessed the Create expression to bubble up any nested CTEs,
1034                    # but CREATE VIEW actually requires the WITH clause to come after it so we need
1035                    # to amend the AST by moving the CTEs to the CREATE VIEW statement's query.
1036                    ctas_expression.set("with", with_.pop())
1037
1038            sql = super().create_sql(expression)
1039
1040            table = expression.find(exp.Table)
1041
1042            # Convert CTAS statement to SELECT .. INTO ..
1043            if kind == "TABLE" and ctas_expression:
1044                if isinstance(ctas_expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
1045                    ctas_expression = ctas_expression.subquery()
1046
1047                select_into = exp.select("*").from_(exp.alias_(ctas_expression, "temp", table=True))
1048                select_into.set("into", exp.Into(this=table))
1049
1050                if like_property:
1051                    select_into.limit(0, copy=False)
1052
1053                sql = self.sql(select_into)
1054
1055            if exists:
1056                identifier = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(exp.table_name(table) if table else ""))
1057                sql = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(sql))
1058                if kind == "SCHEMA":
1059                    sql = f"""IF NOT EXISTS (SELECT * FROM information_schema.schemata WHERE schema_name = {identifier}) EXEC({sql})"""
1060                elif kind == "TABLE":
1061                    assert table
1062                    where = exp.and_(
1063                        exp.column("table_name").eq(table.name),
1064                        exp.column("table_schema").eq(table.db) if table.db else None,
1065                        exp.column("table_catalog").eq(table.catalog) if table.catalog else None,
1066                    )
1067                    sql = f"""IF NOT EXISTS (SELECT * FROM information_schema.tables WHERE {where}) EXEC({sql})"""
1068                elif kind == "INDEX":
1069                    index = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.this.text("this")))
1070                    sql = f"""IF NOT EXISTS (SELECT * FROM sys.indexes WHERE object_id = object_id({identifier}) AND name = {index}) EXEC({sql})"""
1071            elif expression.args.get("replace"):
1072                sql = sql.replace("CREATE OR REPLACE ", "CREATE OR ALTER ", 1)
1073
1074            return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1075
1076        def count_sql(self, expression: exp.Count) -> str:
1077            func_name = "COUNT_BIG" if expression.args.get("big_int") else "COUNT"
1078            return rename_func(func_name)(self, expression)
1079
1080        def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1081            return f"{super().offset_sql(expression)} ROWS"
1082
1083        def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1084            name = "SYSTEM_TIME" if expression.name == "TIMESTAMP" else expression.name
1085            this = f"FOR {name}"
1086            expr = expression.expression
1087            kind = expression.text("kind")
1088            if kind in ("FROM", "BETWEEN"):
1089                args = expr.expressions
1090                sep = "TO" if kind == "FROM" else "AND"
1091                expr_sql = f"{self.sql(seq_get(args, 0))} {sep} {self.sql(seq_get(args, 1))}"
1092            else:
1093                expr_sql = self.sql(expr)
1094
1095            expr_sql = f" {expr_sql}" if expr_sql else ""
1096            return f"{this} {kind}{expr_sql}"
1097
1098        def returnsproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ReturnsProperty) -> str:
1099            table = expression.args.get("table")
1100            table = f"{table} " if table else ""
1101            return f"RETURNS {table}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1102
1103        def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1104            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
1105            into = self.seg(f"INTO {into}") if into else ""
1106            return f"{self.seg('OUTPUT')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}{into}"
1107
1108        def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1109            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1110            this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1111            mark = self.sql(expression, "mark")
1112            mark = f" WITH MARK {mark}" if mark else ""
1113            return f"BEGIN TRANSACTION{this}{mark}"
1114
1115        def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
1116            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1117            this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1118            durability = expression.args.get("durability")
1119            durability = (
1120                f" WITH (DELAYED_DURABILITY = {'ON' if durability else 'OFF'})"
1121                if durability is not None
1122                else ""
1123            )
1124            return f"COMMIT TRANSACTION{this}{durability}"
1125
1126        def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
1127            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1128            this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1129            return f"ROLLBACK TRANSACTION{this}"
1130
1131        def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1132            identifier = super().identifier_sql(expression)
1133
1134            if expression.args.get("global"):
1135                identifier = f"##{identifier}"
1136            elif expression.args.get("temporary"):
1137                identifier = f"#{identifier}"
1138
1139            return identifier
1140
1141        def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1142            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1143            expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=" ")
1144            return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1145
1146        def length_sql(self, expression: exp.Length) -> str:
1147            return self._uncast_text(expression, "LEN")
1148
1149        def right_sql(self, expression: exp.Right) -> str:
1150            return self._uncast_text(expression, "RIGHT")
1151
1152        def left_sql(self, expression: exp.Left) -> str:
1153            return self._uncast_text(expression, "LEFT")
1154
1155        def _uncast_text(self, expression: exp.Expression, name: str) -> str:
1156            this = expression.this
1157            if isinstance(this, exp.Cast) and this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TEXT):
1158                this_sql = self.sql(this, "this")
1159            else:
1160                this_sql = self.sql(this)
1161            expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1162            return self.func(name, this_sql, expression_sql if expression_sql else None)
1163
1164        def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1165            return f"WITH (PARTITIONS({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}))"
1166
1167        def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
1168            action = seq_get(expression.args.get("actions") or [], 0)
1169            if isinstance(action, exp.RenameTable):
1170                return f"EXEC sp_rename '{self.sql(expression.this)}', '{action.this.name}'"
1171            return super().alter_sql(expression)
1172
1173        def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1174            if expression.args["kind"] == "VIEW":
1175                expression.this.set("catalog", None)
1176            return super().drop_sql(expression)
1177
1178        def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
1179            return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1180
1181        def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
1182            variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
1183            default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1184            default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
1185
1186            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1187            if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
1188                kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
1189
1190            return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"
1191
1192        def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
1193            options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
1194            return f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}" if options else ""
1195
1196        def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
1197            return self.sql(
1198                reduce(lambda x, y: exp.Add(this=x, expression=y), expression.flatten())
1199            )